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1. Camp
Structure
a. Choosing a Camp Site
CAMPING MUST FILL THESE
REQUIREMENT WHEN POSSIBLE:
1) Wind sheltered
2) Offer wood for installation.
3) Offer wood for burning
4) Away from swamp, dampness.
5) Close to drinking water supply yet not too close bugs.
6) Seek Dry ground as much as possible.
7) High enough to AVOID mosquitoes using air draft.
8) Tent facing East or rising sun position
9) Winter: Sheltered from wind as much as possible.
10) Winter storm ALWAYS come from West & North thus to AVOID.
WHERE TO CAMP & WHERE NOT TO CAMP:
1) Hill-tops exposed to wind, move down and look for shelter on the Leeside.
2) Valley bottoms and deep hollows - could be damp and especially when the sky is clear, more liable to frost at night.
3) Hill-side terraces where the ground holds moisture.
4) Spurs which lead down to water, which are often routes to animals/watering places.
If you are on high exposed
ground go lower down to find a sheltered spot, but on low, wet ground
you will need to climb higher to find somewhere securely dry. Look for
somewhere sheltered from the wind, on rising ground that has no risk of
flooding and is safe from rock falls or avalanches. Hot air rises, cold
air sinks, so valley bottoms will often pockets of cold air and in cold
weather, be susceptible to frost and damp mist.
In areas that get plenty of
rainfall terraces across a slope will often be damper than the steeper
ground above and below them, for water collects there before flowing further
downward. Ideally you should be near water, with a plentiful supply
of wood near at hand. Pitching camp too close to water, however may lead you
to be troubled by insects and the sound of running water can hide other
noises which might indicate DANGER or the sound of search or rescue
parties. On river banks look for the high water mark.
In Mountain regions streams can become torrents in minutes, rising as much as 5m (17ft) in an
hour! Even on plains keep out of old watercourses, no matter how dry they
are. Heavy rain storms in nearby hills can easily send water rushing down
them in flash floods with PRACTICALLY NO WARNINGS. Choose ground that
is reasonably flat and free or rocks and MAKE SURE that you have
space to lay out signals and that you can be easily spotted by rescue
parties.
Check above your head for bee or hornet nests and for dead wood in trees that could come crashing
down in the next storm or high wind. Keep away from solitary trees which attract lightning, and in forest areas keep to the edges where you can
see what is going on around you. Don't camp across a game trail- you
don't want marauding animals as unwelcome guests or to find your bivouac
flattened by a herd of animals (elephants?) on their way to a water-hole or
bar, but stay near to any obvious human tracks.
FINDING A CAMP SITE:
Choosing a camp spot requires a bit of observation. More so if you're
off the beaten track than in a national park or forest, where locations are
usually restricted to fixed campsites. Even there, when on remote trails and
waterways, away from these fixed sites, the considerate camper picks a
previously established location wherever possible, in order to minimize
man's intrusion into the wilds. Not only does this practice preserve the
same unspoiled beauty that you find for those who follow and who in turn are
followed, in most cases it also assures you of one of the best spots
available. The campers of the past the woodsmen who unleashed their weapons
upon arriving to make tables, dingle cranes, kitchen racks, bough beds, and
sapling tent poles, all from native material seem in the camping world of
today very destructive indeed, but fools they weren't. They picked the best
spot to be found within any given area sheltered, close to water, and
usually with the grandest view around as well. The only problem is that the
natural advantages of these spots often lead to their becoming mini-slums.
Without trying to sound like a platoon leader assigning KP, let me suggest
that if you come to a campsite where the previous occupants apparently
reveled in leaving paper, cans & other garbage scattered all over the floor,
help clean it up. It only takes a couple of minutes, and it isn't asking
much in repayment for the free use of nature. Hopefully, if everyone does
the same, in a few years they'll be no need to continue the pro bono
cleanup.
DOWN BY THE RIVERSIDE:
One of the keys to a comfortable, nay even bearable campsite is water.
There are other things to be said for camping some distance from streams,
rivers, & even lakes. They do rise unexpectedly. Most of the time you can
spot the high-water mark by mud and other stains on nearby trees. But
there's no such thing as the ultimate flood record. For the same reason,
although that grassy sandbank with a cozy ring of little pines in the middle
of the river may seem the perfect place to pull the canoe in for the night
what could be better than one's own island? It could be mighty dangerous. A
fine place for lunch, but not for an overnight stay. Although the rise in
water will be small in most places, given the right conditions, water levels
have been known to rise five or ten feet over night. Also, keeping away from
the very edge of the water, and preferably up from it as well, lessens
discomfort from mist, dampness & often mosquitoes.
LAY OF THE LAND * WHERE TO CAMP BEST:
The 3 traditional requirements for a campsite used to be Water, Wood & a
flat area on which to lay out your sleeping bag or pitch your tent. Wood is
no longer a prerequisite, with the handy and convenient stoves on the
market. Water is still necessary. So is the relative flat stretch of ground.
Flat ground can be as difficult a thing to find as water, if not more so,
particularly in the mountains. There you may have to settle for a spot that
slopes. If you do, MAKE SURE you set up the tent or lay out the bags so that
you will be sleeping with your head up. Sleep with your feet higher than
your head, and you will wake up in the morning feeling you have a nasty
hangover. Sleeping sideways on a slope will have all the occupants of a tent
piled on top of each other on the downhill side before the night is halfway
through. If you are not in a tent, you don't know where you will wake up.
The only certain thing is that it will be far from where you fell asleep. So
why not pitch camp at the bottom of the hollow? Well, usually because that
is the wettest, coldest, foggiest spot around. In the case of heavy rain it
usually also means the morning will greet you with a small quagmire all
around. The top of knoll AVOIDS these problems. Its more positive advantage
is ventilation. A good breeze will keep the bugs to a minimum.
Speaking of BUGS *there you are in the middle
of a beautiful mountain meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the
breeze. A perfect spot. No! For several reasons. Tall grass is where the
chiggers, ticks and other bugs like to camp. Also alpine meadows are
fragile. Setting up a tent there for a week may leave a visible scar for
years. For your own comfort and that of the meadows, pitch your tent at the
edge instead of the middle. It will be as fragrant and the view will be
better. At the edge of a meadow is also where you find bushes and trees to
provide wind shelter and shade for the heat of the day.
FOR BEST RESULTS, PITCH THE TENT OR LAY
OUT YOUR SLEEPING BAG ON THE EAST OR NORTH SIDE OF SHADE TREES.
This way you will be greeted by the warmth of a cheering sun in the
morning. Yet during the heat of the day you will be shaded from its harsh
rays. If prevailing winds are known, take them into consideration the same
way. Camp on the lee side of rocks and trees when it's cold & you need
protection. When it's warm, make camp on the windward side so the breezes
help cool your wilderness home. But check the trees out. NEVER camp beneath
a lone tree if there is any chance of thunderstorm. With its limbs reaching
higher in the sky than anything else around, it makes a natural lightning
rod. Dead trees are also a hazard - the heavy waterlogged birches in
particular. One moment they stand tall & serene in the sky. The next moment,
sometimes without even the lightest zephyr having whisked across the ground,
they lie uprooted and prone. Should your tent have been pitched beneath,
well... The same holds true, if to a lesser degree, for dead branches. Don't
camp beneath them. Chances of a dead branch killing you in its fall are very
slim indeed. But an injury is far from out of the question, and the least it
will do is ruin your tent.
MORE CAUTION:
When pitching your tent above the timber line in Mountainous regions,
look up before you set up. Landslides are not a common occurrence
statistically. But why become a statistic? Slopes of loose rock, slabs,
round boulders, or what looks like a frozen stream of smooth rocks down a
gully may decide to move during a heavy rain or in the alternate freezing
and thawing of the cold of night and warm of day. Give all of them a wide
berth.
WHERE NOT TO CAMP:
Common sense is the principal determinant to be close to drinking water
and firewood nearby at hand and to pick a spot as conspicuous as possible
to make signal if in case of emergency. We will AVOID spot that
may be inundated by a suddenly rising stream, particularly not if we are
aware of the disastrous results in some areas of storms not even visibly
locally. Warning tokens to be considered often include scars and debris left
by previous high water. So AVOID dry river beds which can be
inundated fast. Lush growth may be not only rough and soggy underfoot but it
may presage troublesome insects. Also AVOID places where there may be
cave-ins, avalanches, or perils from tumbling rocks. If there are dangers of
electrical storms REMEMBER that solitary trees have a tendency to
attract lightning. Particularly to be shunned will be jeopardy from falling
timber. Such trees such as cottonwoods and poplars are particular offenders
when it comes to unexpectedly tumbling limbs. The fast growing coastal pines
of California are extremely brittle & therefore, threats in every
sort of weather. Whenever there is any question, we'll bivouac among small
growth or in the open. That is where we will make any winter camps in
treeless northern regions, well away from lees where drifting snow can be an
insidious hazard.
WARNING:
But check the trees out. Never camp beneath a lone tree if there
is any chance of thunderstorm. With its limbs reaching higher in the sky
than anything else around it makes a natural lightning rod, dear Mose! (Deer
Moose?) Dead tree are also a hazard, the heavy waterlogged birches in
particular. One moment they stall tall & serene in the sky. The next moment,
sometimes without even the lightest zephyr having whisked across the ground,
they lie uprooted and prone. Should your tent have been pitched beneath,
well... Tough luck Charley Brown! The same hold true, if to a lesser degree,
for dead branches. Don't camp beneath them. Chances of a dead
branches killing you in its fall are very slim indeed. But an injury is far
from out of the questions, and the least it will do is ruin your tent.
MOUNTAIN CAMPING:
When pitching your tent above the timber line in mountainous regions,
look up before you set up. Landslide are not a common occurrence
statistically But why become a statistic Slopes of loose rock, slabs, round
boulders, or what looks like a frozen stream of smooth rocks down a gully
may decide to move during a heavy rain or in the alternate freezing and
thawing of the cold of night and warm of day. Give all of them a wide berth.
Do pick a spot that is sheltered as much as possible from the wind. A
firm outcropping of rock or large, well entrenched boulders are probably the
best shelters you will find to pitch tent behind. But take advantage
of whatever you can. A determined mountain gale may hit a hundred & fifty to
200 miles/hour. A good campsite is not that difficult to find, I hasten to
add before proceeding with one more small caution: know what poison ivy &
poison oak look like.
BEST TENT LOCATION:
Erected towards the South will AVOID the cold wind of the North
as well as the rain from the East.
SHELTER FROM COLD:
In an emergency look for natural shelter in your immediate area; a
shallow cave, a fallen tree, boulders. DON'T WAIT till darkness fall.
Make or find a shelter while there is light. You MUST get out of the
rain, wind, snow before Hypothermia sets in. Make more permanent shelter when
permitted. If nothing better punch a head-hole in plastic bag (In your
S/Kit). Put it on & huddle out of wind, back against boulder, tree trunk
etc. Move legs & arms frequently.
SHELTER LOCATION:
If choice, locate shelter out of wind on high ground, not in hollow
where chilling fog will settle. Stay near forest if possible. Trees are good
wind breaker. Insulate floor of shelter as deeply as you can with brush,
leaves, grass- anything to keep you of the cold ground. What is
underneath is more important than what's over you. Dig tunnel into snow
if no other shelter is available. Use stick to keep air vent open. In deep
snow, base of trees can provide shelter. Use your imagination, improvise but
keep construction shelter simple, Don't waist valuable energy!
BEST
CAMPING SPOT:
For best results, pitch the tent or lay out your sleeping bag on
the East or North side of shade trees. This way you will be greeted by the
warmth of a cheering sun in the morning. Yet during the heat of the day you
will be shaded from its harsh rays. If prevailing winds are known, take them
into consideration the same way.
WHERE
TO CAMP BEST:
The 3 traditional requirements for a campsite used to be Water,
Wood & a flat area on which to lay out your sleeping bag or pitch your tent.
Wood is no longer a prerequisite, with the handy and convenient stoves on
the market. Water is still necessary. So is the relative flat stretch of
ground. Flat ground can be as difficult a thing to find as water, if not
more so, particularly in the mountains. There you may have to settle for a
spot that slopes. If you do, MAKE SURE you set up the tent or lay out
the bags so that you will be sleeping with your head up. Sleep with your
feet higher than your head, and you will wake up in the morning feeling you
have a nasty hangover. Sleeping sideways on a slope will have all the
occupants of a tent piled on top of each other on the downhill side before
the night is halfway through. If you are not in a tent, you don't know where
you will wake up. The only certain thing is that it will be far from where
you fell asleep. So why not pitch camp at the bottom of the hollow? Well,
usually because that is the wettest, coldest, foggiest spot around. In the
case of heavy rain it usually also means the morning will greet you with a
small quagmire all around. The top of knoll avoids these problems. Its more
positive advantage is ventilation. A good breeze will keep the bugs to a
minimum.
BUGS CORNER:BZZZZZ!
Speaking of bugs. There you are in the middle of a beautiful mountain
meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the breeze. A perfect spot. No!
For several reasons. Tall grass is there the chiggers, ticks and other bugs
like to camp too. Also alpine meadows are fragile. Setting up a tent there
for a week may leave a visible scar for years For your own comfort and that
of the meadows, pitch your tent at the edge instead of the middle. It will
be as fragrant and the view will be better. At the edge of a meadow is also
where you find bushes and trees to provide wind shelter & shade for the heat
of the day.
DO PICK A SPOT THAT IS SHELTERED AS MUCH
AS POSSIBLE FROM THE WIND:
A firm outcropping of rock or large, well entrenched boulders are
probably the best shelters you will find to pitch tent behind. But take
advantage of whatever you can. A determined mountain gale may hit a hundred
and fifty to 200 miles an hour. A good campsite is not that difficult to
find, I hasten to add before proceeding with one more small caution: know
what
Poison Ivy &
Poison Oak look like. Oh yeah -
poison sumac is nasty, too.
Click here for poison ivy, poison oak pictures as well as many imposters
(look-alikes) and see what people are finding in their backyards.
Back to Top
1. Camp Structure
b. Leadership &
Responsibilities
SETTING UP THE EASY WAY:
To really enjoy camping, the trick is to make it as little work as
possible. In pitching and breaking camp, each person doing specific tasks is
the KEY to a wonderful time!
SETTING UP THE EASY WAY:
To really enjoy camping, the trick is to make it as little work as
possible. In pitching and breaking camp, each person doing specific task is
the KEY TO SUCCESS. When you find a campsite, you divvy up the jobs and go
to it. One pitches the tent while the other gets the fire going or in
reverse depending who's in the mood for what. Certain tasks are primarily in
one or the other's domain. If you have not camped before, to make your fist
night on the trail the pleasure it should be instead of a trial & error of a
guessing game. Go through the whole routine of setting & breaking camp in
your backyard before you leave. If you are gearing up for extended camping,
take a couple of overnight break-in trips. They will more than pay for
themselves by instilling a rhythmic efficiency in your camping party. Don't
leave out the kids. Making them part of the team is worth more than having a
free rein. It also helps wear them out. Of course it may not ALWAYS save
time. Genevieve started helping to pitch the tent when she was 14 months
old. Getting the tent up took 3 times as long, but she was proud as could
be. Camping with 5 years old and up, take a night off occasionally and let
them do all the work while you sit back and relax. (MMM!) It is amazing how
much a young child can handle in the wilds and what a sense of
accomplishment it gives him. By the way one of your practice runs should
include a crack at setting up camp in the dark with a minimum amount of
light. That is one flashlight or less. Once you have done it a couple of
times setting up camp at night becomes automatic. REMEMBER that no matter
how well planned a camping trip is, at one time or another you are going to
reach your campsite after sunset.
ORGANIZING THE SURVIVAL CAMP:
In many survival situations there will already be someone in a position of
responsibility who will head the organization of the camp and lead the
development of survival plans. Experience MUST BE pooled & immediate steps
taken to discover what skills individuals can contribute. A roster is
ESSENTIAL for such daily chores as collecting firewood & water, foraging,
cooking, latrine digging and maintenance tasks, and for hunting and
trapping.
If no established command structure exists
among a group of survivors, an organized committee should be established and
individuals nominated & elected with particular responsibilities perhaps on
a rational basis if it is a large group and rescue does not come quickly. In
any group of survivors there may be all kinds of people of different ages
and experience. People will have varied skills and enjoy doing different
tasks. However, everyone who is fit and able should take their turn at the
unpleasant tasks, unless their skills are so much in demand that it would be
a waste of their abilities. Keeping busy eliminates boredom and keeps up
morale.
Anyone who is sick or injured gets the
lightest jobs and is best employed around camp until they have recovered.
There should ALWAYS be someone in camp, and they should be able enough to
operate the rescue signals should a search aircraft appear. If you have
sufficient numbers do NOT venture from the camp in less than pairs.
Music can be a great morale booster. If no
instruments were carried or survived, simple ones such as percussion or
pan-pipes can be easily improvised, and everyone can sing after a fashion.
Sing-songs, dancing, charades, quizzes and story-telling and even praying
all have their place and you may have talents that can create more elaborate
entertainment. You can make pieces for board games such as draughts and
chess, using stones for counters or carving simple playing pieces.
Even the lone survivor requires discipline
and order. A regular routine will help morale and exactly the same care MUST
BE taken to ensure that the camp is kept in good order.
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1. Camp Structure
c. Layout & Set-up
CAMP LAYOUT:
Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not interfere with
each other or pollute the living and cooking areas. If you are camped by a
river or stream, fix specific sections for activities & keep to them.
Latrines should be dug downhill and downstream from the camp so that there
is NO possible risk of polluting either.
ACTIVITY AREAS:
Establish a water point from which drinking water will be collected and
ensure that no one wash, cleans pots, scrubs clothes or otherwise uses the
stream upstream of this point. Choose a downstream (from camp) wash point
for personal ablutions and clothes washing and farther downstream of that
select a place to be used for cleaning cooking utensils. Never urinate or
defecate in or near your water supply.
SANITATION:
If you are in an established campground with latrines, use them. If as
is more likely, there are none around, head for the woods. Go a reasonable
distance from camp & dig, scratch or kick a hole in one of the less
accessible spots where you would not normally be walking. The hole need not,
in fact should not be deep. Most bacterial action occurs in the top 6 inches
of the soil. So although a shovel might be handy it is not really necessary.
Cover everything well and stomp it down. If you are squeamish about stomping
it down you have not covered it well enough. (OOPSS SHIITTT!) For a party of
several people on an extended stay, a longish trench again only 6 to 8
inches deep, is usually gauged and agreed upon spot. As it is used, it is
covered with dirt bit by bit. Leave toilet paper hung on a branch, an empty
coffee can over it to keep it dry and conveniently nearby.
1-2-3- ANCHOR:
A very stout stake is driven into the ground at an angle of about 45
degree and to the foot of this the main rope to be anchored is fastened. To
the head of this stake 2 ropes are secured and these are fastened to the
foot of 2 stakes to the rear. The heads of these stakes are in turn tied
back to the foot of 3 other stakes. This anchor will hold secure under
almost all conditions.
ANCHORING A PEG IN SAND or SNOW:
The only way to anchor a rope into soft sand is to attach it to a peg
and bury the peg in the sand. Scrape a trench in the sand to a depth of
between 12 to 18 inches deeper if high winds or very stormy weather are
expected. Pass the rope round the center of the peg scratch a channel for it
at right angles to the peg trench. Fill in the trench and rope channel and
fasten the free end of the rope to the standing end with a stopper hitch*
and pull taut. The buried peg should hold a tent rope in sand under all
normal weather conditions. Same applies in snow.
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2. Field
Hygiene
a. Importance of Hygiene
CAMP HYGIENE:
Keeping healthy is an important factor for survival, so strict hygiene
should be practiced, not only personally but in the planning and running of
a camp. Rubbish and latrines MUST BE kept away from the camp to reduce the
threat from flies. Food scraps and other rubbish should be burned in the
fire if possible. Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation
are water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE RIGOROUSLY AVOIDED.
Back to Top
2. Field Hygiene
b. Food Preparation
& Storage
KEEPING THE FOOD FOR YOURSELF:
Although they may not eat everything you take along, animals will make a
beeline for the camp kitchen at night. In Bear country it's ALWAYS a good
idea to hang your comestibles well out of reach. Put them all together in a
waterproof duffel or stuff sack, attach a line to the bag, and throw the
line over a large tree branch. It should hang out as far from the trunk as
its weight will permit. I used to pull our gear up seven or eight feet in
bear country. Now I make it twelve if I can. This past summer a grizzly that
MUST have been trying out for the Olympic basketball team tore the bottom
out of our pantry even though it was almost 9 feet off the ground. NEVER
NEVER under any circumstances keep food in your tent when in Bear country.
Even in regions where bears have definitely been driven to extinction, it's
still a good policy to hang your food away from the tent.
CAMP DISCIPLINE:
Do not prepare game in camp: bleed, gut and skin on the trap line or
kill site. This attracts game to the traps where you want them, not into
your camp. Keep food covered and off the ground. If kept in trees MAKE SURE
it is proof from tree-dwelling animals. Replace lids on water bottles and
containers IMMEDIATELY after using them. Stow spare clothing and equipment
in your shelter. Do not leave it lying where it can get wet or burned. Have
a place for everything & keep things tidy. A tree for mess tins & cooking
utensils-hook them on twigs and branches, a place for mugs and spoons & keep
everything off the ground. Fix a box as cupboard on a tree trunk.
NEVER LEAVE THE CAMPFIRE
UNATTENDED
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2. Field Hygiene
c. Keeping the Camp Clean
GARBAGE:
There's no garbage pickup in the real wilderness. If you pack it in,
pack it out pack it all out. Food scraps, if there are any, are the only
thing that can be safely left behind. But don't just scrape them out at the
edge of your campsite. Carry them back into the brush and scatter them
around.
INCINERATOR:
If there is too much waste for the camp fire to burn, make a separate
fire in the latrine area. If a large can is available use it as an
incinerator. Bury any unburned refuse in a garbage pit.
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2. Field Hygiene
d. Field Expedient
Soap Making
FIELD EXPEDIENT SOAP MAKING:
Two ingredients-an oil and alkali- are needed to make soap. The oil can
be animal fat (including fish) or vegetable but not mineral. The alkali can
be produced by burning wood or seaweed to produce ash. Wash ash with water.
Strain and boil with the oil. Simmer until excess liquid are evaporated and
allow to cool. This soap will clean the skin but it is not antiseptic.
Adding horseradish root or pine resin to the brew will make it antiseptic.
Experimentation will be necessary to get the balance in the mixture right.
Start with more oil than alkali because too much alkali will dry the skin,
leaving it sore.
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3. Field
Sanitation – Wash, Clean & Latrine
a.
Locating & Setting Up Wash Stations
WASH STATIONS:
Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not interfere with
each other or pollute the living and cooking areas. If you are camped by a
river or stream, fix specific sections for activities & keep to them.
Establish a water point from which drinking water will be collected and
ensure that no one wash, cleans pots, scrubs clothes or otherwise uses the
stream upstream of this point. Choose a downstream (from camp) wash point
for personal ablutions and clothes washing and farther downstream of that
select a place to be used for cleaning cooking utensils. Never urinate
or defecate in or near your water supply.
SOAP:
Washing with soap removes natural oils, leaving the skin less waterproof
and more prone to attack by germs. In survival circumstances it is a mistake
to wash with soap too often. However, soap is the most widely
used antiseptic, better than many others, such as iodine, which destroy body
tissue as well as germs. It is ideal for scrubbing hands before
administering first-aid for wounds. Save supplies for this.
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3. Field Sanitation – Wash, Clean &
Latrine
b. Siting &
Preparing Latrines
LATRINES AND RUBBISH DISPOSAL:
Latrines and rubbish disposal should be well away from the camp and
preferably downwind. Rubbish, after checking that it really has no USEFUL
value, should be burned, and what cannot be burned should be buried. The
latrine point should not be so far away that is inconvenient and people are
tempted to go elsewhere. If necessary cut a track to it to make access
easier.
DEEP TRENCH LATRINE:
Dig a trench about 1.25m (4ft) deep and 45cm (18in) wide. Build up the
sides with logs or rocks and earth to make a comfortable sitting height,
sealing the gaps between them. Lay logs across to leave only a hole for use
or (several if you are a large group and making a communal latrine). Empty
wood ash on the logs to make a seal. It will also deter flies. Make a lid of
smaller wood to cover the opening or use a large flat rock or a large leaf
weighted down with stones.
ALWAYS REMEMBER to replace it.
URINAL:
Dig a pit about 60cm (2ft) deep. Three-quarters fill it with a large
stone and then top up with earth, with a cone made from bark set into it as
a funnel. Site it close enough to the camp to ensure that people bother to
use it.
Back to Top
3. Field Sanitation – Wash, Clean &
Latrine
c. Latrine Maintenance
It is important that proper latrines be
established, even for the lone survivor. With a group separate latrines for
the sexes may make a mixed group feel more comfortable and as much privacy
as possible should be provided. Even if you have it, do not use disinfectant
in a latrine. Lime or disinfectant would kill the USEFUL bacteria that break
down and then it will start smelling! After defecating cover the feces with
earth. Add small amounts of water that will promote the bacterial breakdown.
Make a latrine cover to keep out flies and REMEMBER ALWAYS to replace it, or
flies that have walked all over feces may walk all over your food, & start a
cycle of infection. If, after a time, a latrine starts to smell, dig a new
one. Fill in the old latrine. Build a new seat and burn old timbers &
covers.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
a. Location & Set-up
PITCHING THE TENT:
Clear the spot for your tent of any sharp rocks, twigs or other debris.
If a live root pokes somewhere, don't try to dig it out. The more you dig,
the thicker it ALWAYS seem to get and the harder it is to break. Sawing in a
hole is not only difficult, but you usually damage the blade as well. You
won't injure the tree much by pruning a root, but you will certainly wear
yourself out. Better to move your future tent location a bit. If that is not
possible, set the tent up so that the root is where your sleeping bag won't
be & pad it on the inside if you are likely to crawl over it. Next if you
have a self supporting tent of the Draw-Tite variety, all you do is roll it
out, put the pole sections together, and lift the tent into place on them.
If you have a peg and pole tent, you start the same way. Roll out the tent.
Stake down the 4 corners, making the floor snug and squaring the corners.
Position the poles and stakes out the guy lines, leaving enough slack so you
can make the fine adjustments with the line tighteners later. Next stake out
the side pull-outs. Once the lines are all out, adjust them so the tent is
taut and wrinkles free. The KEY is balanced tension, not just tension.
Although the lines should be taut excessive tension deforms the tent adding
unnecessary strain If you are using a rain fly, lay it over the tent poles.
Stake it out, unless it's the exterior frame supported variety, so it does
not touch the tent itself anywhere or it will cause capillary leaks. You can
tie the end lines of your fly to your tent stakes. But on windy days it is
an added safety factor to use separate stakes for the fly. By the time
you're done with this your partner should have dinner well under way. Lay
out the sleeping bags so they can maximize their loft before you crawl in.
Then hit for chow.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
b. Type &
Construction
CHECKING OUT A TENT:
The thread used to stitch a tent together should match the material
nylon thread with nylon, cotton thread with cotton. Cotton is really the
best of all threads because it swells when wet, sealing the stitch holes.
However, when it is used on nylon tents, owners tend to treat the whole tent
as if it was synthetic and do not take the time to let it dry out as well as
if it was a cotton tent. This induces premature rot in the cotton thread
materially lessening the seam life of the tent. Seams preferably should be
lap felled & double stitched for maximum strength, particularly with
lightweight fabrics. Horizontal seams should lie so that the folded over
part drips towards the ground on the outside. Otherwise the seam will tend
to hold water like a rain gutter. The stitching should be evenly spaces and
neat. REMEMBER neatness does count. Nylon, even ripstop, is susceptible to
unraveling. All nylon edges should be heat-sealed. Most tent makers hot cut
their fabrics, effectively binding off the edge as they snip, all in the
same process. Peaks, corners, pole sleeves and particularly pullouts and
grommets should be reinforced. Any part of the tent to which a line is going
to be tied should be strengthened with a patch to spread the stress. Set the
tent up and check all stress points while it's raised. That's the way you'll
be using it. Zippers are best made of nylon. The coil variety being the most
desirable of all, with nylon teeth in second place. Following those are the
old brass zippers. Aluminum teeth come in a far distant forth. Check out
not only the quality of zippers, but their arrangement as well- ALWAYS with
these questions in mind: How convenient would this particular setup be for
me & my gang when we are inside? Is the door easy to work? Can the window be
closed if the gear is at the back under it? Etc.
HOW BIG A TENT?:
Rarely should you consider anything bigger than the two-man tents.
You're not trying to take a seven room house to the woods when you go
camping. You're looking for compactness, easy portability, warmth, and
coziness in cold weather. Even more rare are the circumstances where you'll
need anything bigger than a three-man tent. So rare, indeed, I can't think
of any. Yes, but what about the kids?
Kids go for tents like bees in basswood.
Think back to your own childhood, when you were forever busy crawling into
little houses or making a brand new one by hanging a blanket over the table
or a set of chairs. Kids like tents so much they'll even camp out in the
backyard at home. How young can you start a child out in his or her own
tent? Reasons of parental convenience, such as responding to calls for milk
or a less soggy diaper in the middle of the night, may dictate three in a
tent. But our daughter Genevieve, presented with the opportunity of sacking
out in one by herself when fourteen months old, seemed to view it as a cozy
little nursery, apparently with much more interesting walls, doors, and
furnishings than the one at home. Needless to say, when camping with young
children, separate tents should be within easy reach & hearing distance of
each other – no matter how tempted you may be to pitch yours at the other
end of the lake.
HOME IS A LAKE:
The most elementary tent is a tarp. This is simply a waterproof square
of material usually somewhere between 9X9 feet and 14X14 feet in size. It
can be slung between 2 trees etc. The new types are made of nylon which make
them very light and fitting for your pack. They MUST be coated with
polyurethane to repel water. If you use a tarp you'll need also a ground
cloth (simply a sheet of plastic) or use your poncho. You'll also need a
strong nylon line about 15 feet or more. A second item, not indispensable,
but very handy, particularly if your tarp lacks sufficient ties and
grommets, is the tarp garter, or Visklamp. It looks like a combination
jacks' ball and shower curtain ring and works on the same principle a garter
does. Ask your wife! You put the ring flat against the tarp wherever you
wish to attach a line, then you push the tarp through the large end of the
ring with the ball and slide the whole thing up to the slim end. Then you
just tie your line onto the large ring, lead it to the rigger point you've
picked out, and your set.
THE TUBE:
At last a disposable tent, weighing just over a pound, good for two
weeks in the wilds, and costing no more than a pizza pie back home. It will
probably not be with us long, however. Like so many other good things, it is
too easy to abuse. The usual tube tent is nine to nine and a half foot long,
with an eight foot circumference for the one-man model, a 12 foot
circumference for the two-man version. Get one made of 4 mill or thicker
plastic. Get an opaque-colored one rather than clear. You won't walk into it
at night as readily. The tint will also reflect solar radiation, keeping the
inside cooler in warmer weather.
There are two things to REMEMBER besides
NEVER leaving your torn tent behind in the wilds. NEVER close off the ends
of the tube. Plastic cannot breathe. If it is sealed off, neither can you.
Secondly, during heavy rain, water will tend to splatter in at the base. To
minimize the effects of this, stand your rucksack up at one end about ten
inches inside the edge, place a log or similar object the same distance from
the other end, then lift the plastic up like a doorsill against them. A
couple of doubled-over pieces of cloth adhesive tape, or even Scotch tape,
which clings like a demon to polyethylene, attached as loops to the ends of
the tent before you set out on your trip, will permit you to anchor the sill
easily after you've climbed into the tent.
A more permanent version of the tube tent is
the Trail-wise fabric model made by Sky Hut. It's made of urethane-coated
nylon & has the added benefit of a stronger floor. Tapered towards the rear,
it has hooded eaves at both ends, making it more of a tent than a tube.
Still, if it's your first time out and you're not planning to rough it, you
should probably consider something more substantial than even a modified
tube tent.
A TUB FOR A FLOOR:
The floor of a real tent should be of the tub, or wraparound, variety
and preferably seamless to eliminate the possibility of ground leaks. A tub
floor comes up and around to form the lower six to twelve inches of the tent
sides. This waterproof sill prevents seepage if your gears or sleeping bags
happen to touch the lower walls. It also keeps raindrops splattering off the
ground from saturating the tent itself, which is not and should not be
waterproof. A waterproof tent & there are some being made will raise a small
rainstorm inside the tent while you sleep. Moisture from your breath and
body rises to the roof, can't go through, condenses, and drops back over
your sleeping body, turning your abode into a miniature cloud chamber. The
moisture involved is not just a few drops, incidentally, but up to a full
quart per person per day.
A RAIN FLY FOR THE ROOF:
But if a tent isn't waterproof how is it going to keep you dry? Simple.
You cover the tent with a second roof, one that is waterproof and
appropriately named a rain fly. This is suspended anywhere from three to six
inches above your tent. Water bounces off this top layer, while inside
moisture passes through the tent itself into the space between and then out
at the sides. The double layer also keeps a tent considerably cooler during
the day and warmer at night.
FOREST TENT:
There are several one man tents available. They are rarely used, since
even most loners will lug the minimal extra weight of the 2 men tent model
just to have the additional space. There are many types but there is one
tent that is close to perfection. It's the Draw Tite developed by Robert
Blanchard. Working with lightweight heat treated aircraft aluminum tubing he
designed a self tensioned tent frame from which the tent itself was tightly
suspended by means of hooks and shock cords. The exterior frame literally
pulls the tent out in all directions, eliminating sagging & flapping
completely. In addition to ALWAYS giving you a smooth surface, it minimizes
wear, since stress is evenly distributed. And it provides & entranceway &
interior entirely free of clutter. For years we used a 2 men Eureka Draw
Tite. The modern camper may cringe at 13 pounds which is what a two-man tent
weighs. But for any other form of camping it's unbeatable. The same exterior
frame that keeps the tent walls free of ropes and stakes also permits you to
set up the tent on sand or solid rock where other tents are difficult, if
not impossible to erect. And pitching a Draw Tite is simplicity itself.
Identical aluminum sections slip together to make the frame from which the
tent is suspended. There are no lines to set or adjust. The whole thing can
literally be done blindfolded. This tent again proves its worth in storms
because of its being so stable & ventilation is excellent. The only draw
back is the metal zippers which should be switched to self-repairing
snag-proof nylon ones. Now there is also a nylon model which will save on
weight.
WHAT MAKES AN ALPINE TENT:
True mountain tent, designed not only for windy high altitude but
snowstorms as well, have several features not usually found in forest tents.
Yet they add much weight and expenses as well. There are 5 ESSENTIAL
modifications that distinguish the alpine tent from others: cook hole,
exhaust vent, frost liner, tunnel entrance & snow frock valance. There are
several good ones: Among the best: Gerry's Himalayan, Sierra Design's
Glacier and North Face's St. Elias; which is the lightest one of the lot.
THE COOK HOLE AND EXHAUST VENT:
A zippered opening in the tent floor, set well away from the wall for
fire safety & convenience, permits access to the ground below an alpine
tent. If you MUST cook in the tent this is where you will set up your store,
it will also be your garbage pit. "Cook-King" in your tent is a practice not
recommended except in really extenuating circumstances, better to munch on
cold gorp. Any extensive inside cooking will cause moisture condensation in
the best of tents. To minimize it, alpine tents have a small hood closable
tunnel vent half a foot or more in diameter or near the cook hole to permit
an up-draught exhaust of the moisture laden air.
THE FROST LINER:
In weather below 20 F. frost lining becomes an ESSENTIAL part of a tent.
The removable frost liner is cut from light cotton fabric and attached as an
inner wall. In some cases nylon is used, although lighter it is far inferior
for this purpose since it holds comparatively little moisture. Ice crystal
forming from tent moisture condenses on the surface of the liner during the
more extreme temperature conditions rather than falling on your sleeping bag
especially at night. At a convenient moment you take down the frost liner
and shake it off outside the tent. If you don't get a chance to do this
before the tent warms up, the ice crystals will melt. But the frost liner
will then absorb the moisture rather than letting it drip down your back.
TUNNEL ENTRANCE:
It is another ESSENTIAL in the Winter camping conditions the alpine tent
is designed to meet. Zippers are prone to freezing, jamming or breaking in
extreme cold weather rendering the usual tent flaps worthless. Also a flat
vertical entranceway is more readily blocked by snow than a tunnel. With the
tunnel extended it's not difficult at all to enter a tent unaccompanied by
blowing snow even in a determined blizzard. As a rule, a tent tunnel
entrance is roughly 3 feet in diameter with a 3 to 4 foot sleeve that can be
pulled out and suspended to a guy line or attached to the tunnel entrance of
a second tent to make a cozy set of twins during long heavy rains or severe
storms. It certainly makes for easy tent keeping.
THE SNOW FROCK VALANCE:
A last modification found is the exterior snow frock valance or flaps.
Pieces of coated fabric of some material as the floor extended out from the
base of the tent to life flat on the ground. Usually about a foot wide the
flaps can be covered with a thick layer of snow & then stomped down
thoroughly to keep the wind from slipping under the tent floor. Not only do
they add warmth, but in case of a severe gale they prevent your tent from
breaking its mooring and drifting off to no-man's land.
MAYBE A VESTIBULE:
An additional plus you may want to look for in alpine tent is a
vestibule or two. One or both ends of the tent, instead of being made flat
are curved out to give you an extra cooking and maneuvering room when you're
tent-bound. AVOID tents with floored vestibules unless they have skills to
keep the dirt from being tracked into the main part of the tent. If a sill
is provided, the bare ground vestibule makes an excellent cook hole.
TENT ACCESSORIES:
The whisk broom is not a fetish. What makes it so IMPORTANT is the
nature of modern fabrics and the almost universal acceptance of floored
tents. Ripstop nylon does not tear readily. But the shell of a tent is
sensitive to small punctures Pine sap turns into cotton candy. It doesn't
accept water repellents readily, but it greets dirt with open arms. And
rolling up pine needles, burrs, and sand in your tent when breaking camp
will reduce the life of the tent by half.
MENDING A TENT:
Speaking of water, any tent can and may develop a small seam leak,
particularly along the edge of the floor and in corners. A little squeeze
bottle of Neoprene sealer complete with pointed nozzle should be kept in
your tent-bag to remedy the situation quickly & painlessly. Make a mental
note of any spot that leaks when it leaks. Otherwise you may not find it
till the next rain. Seal it before you leave the tent for the day, first
making certain all possible vents are open. Sealer sure doesn't smell like
pine boughs, and it can give you a nasty headache as well. But after two or
three hours the smell will be gone along with your leak. Besides sealer, a
small repair kit put together with your particular tent in mind is handy,
indeed ALMOST ESSENTIAL. Canvas tents will rip on occasion. The new nylon
tents are very susceptible to fire damage. They won't burn. They simply
melt.
ZIP ZIP ZIP ZIP:
Metal zippers are definitely out for either sleeping bag or tent; they
jam, freeze, and break too easily. Nylon toothed zippers are good,
particularly if the teeth are large. I've got one last thought on zippers.
The longer, the better.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
c. Field Expedient
SHELTER BASIC ESSENTIAL:
TO BUILT A SHELTER TAKES A LITTLE TRAINING BUT ONE THING THAT IS ABSOLUTELY
ESSENTIAL IS A WATERPROOFED GROUND SHEET. IF YOU HAVE THAT THEN YOU ARE SAFE
& WILL MAKE GOOD SHELTER. The type of shelter you build will depend
upon: the materials available, the tools available, what you are sheltering
from wind, cold, snow, rain, insects, etc. How long do you intend to remain
at the location? Snow caves and natural holes are ideal if you are on the
move and do not need a permanent structure. Size will depend upon the number
in the party! (Having fun yet?). Take your time over building a complex
structure and rest often. Over-exertion which produces sweating MUST be
AVOIDED.
THE EASIEST WAY TO
CONSTRUCT A SHELTER IS:
To fix solidly into the ground 2 forked sticks and to put across a pole
as a ceiling and then you lean against it other poles or bunch of branches
and cover the roof with grass etc.
ANOTHER EASY WAY EVEN
FASTER IS:
To take only one pole and to lean it against a tree then tie it then
used pine branches or leaves branches to make the sidings. In a country like
South Africa where one does not have poles at his disposal, one makes
a hay wall or using brushes in an half circle so as to protect oneself from
the cold wind and lights a fire in the open section. If the sun makes your
shelter too hot add another layer of grass or leaves. The thicker the
roof the cooler the shelter. If it is too cold then thicken the bottom
parts of the walls or built a small wall about one foot high around the
walls of the shelter. Don't forget to dig a ditch around the shelter
so that the rain does not wash you off or enters your shelter.
TYPES OF SHELTER:
It will depend upon local conditions and the material available. Also on
how long you expect to need it. For immediate protection from the elements,
rig up a makeshift shelter while you construct something better and more
permanent. If you decide to stay put and wait for rescue, a more long term
shelter can be build and improved on as time and energy permit. For those
walking to safety, on the other hand, temporary shelters can be built at
each stopping point. They can even be carried with you if they are
sufficiently light and there is a significant risk that materials may not be
available at the next campsite. A more permanent shelter will certainly be
worthwhile for the sick and injured, who MUST rest up in order to
regain their strength or where it IS NECESSARY to wait for the
weather to clear before attempting a journey. Use the time to stockpile
equipment and provisions.
HASTY SHELTERS:
If no materials are available for constructing a shelter make use of any
cover and protection that is available: Cliff overhangs, gradients and so
forth, which will help shield you from wind or rain. Incorporate natural
windbreaks in quickly constructed shelters. In completely open plains, sit
with your back to the wind and pile any equipment behind you as a windbreak.
BOUGH SHELTER:
Make use of branches that sweep down to the ground or boughs that have
partly broken from the tree to give basic protection from the wind, but MAKE
SURE that they are not so broken that they could come down on your
head! Weave in other twigs to make the cover more dense. Conifers are more
suited to this technique than broad leaved trees as they require less
weaving in to keep out the rain. Make similar shelter by lashing a
broken-off bough to the base of another branch where it forks from the trunk
(A).
ROOT SHELTER:
The spreading roots and trapped earth at the base of a fallen tree make
a good wind and storm barrier, if they are at the right angle to the wind.
Filling in the sides between the extended roots will usually make the
shelter much more effective and provide a good support for building a more
elaborate shelter from other materials.
USE A NATURAL HOLLOW:
Even a shallow depression in the ground will provide some protection
from the wind and can reduce the effort in constructing a shelter. However
take the necessary measures to deflect the downhill flow of water around it,
especially if it is a hollow on a slope or you could find yourself lying in
a pool. Make a roof to keep the rain off the and the warmth in A few strong
branches placed across the hollow can support a light log laid over them,
against which shorter boughs and sticks can be stacked to give pitch to the
roof and so allow water to run off. Consolidate with turf or with twigs and
leaves.
FALLEN TRUNKS:
A log or fallen tree trunk makes a useful windbreak on its own, if it is at
the right angle to the wind. With a small trunk, scoop out a hollow in the
ground on the leeward side. A log makes also an excellent support for a lean
to roof of boughs.
DRAINAGE & VENTILATION:
A run-off channel gouged from the earth around any shelter in which you
are below or lying directly on, ground level will help to keep the shelter
dry. Hasty shelter will usually have many spaces where air can enter. Do not
try to seal them all: Ventilation is ESSENTIAL !
STONE BARRIERS:
A shelter is more comfortable if you can sit rather than lie in
it, so
increase its height by building a low wall of stones around your chosen
hollow or shallow excavation. Caulk between the stones especially the
lowest layer with turf and foliage mixed with mud, and deflect the flow
or rain-water around the shelter as shown below.
SAPLING SHELTER:
If suitable sapling growth is available, select two lines of sapling,
clear the ground between them of any obstructions and lash their tops
together to form a support frame for sheeting. Weight down the bottom edges
of the sheeting with rocks or timber. You can make a similar shelter from
pliable branches driven into the ground. If you lack sheeting, choose or
place sapling close together, weave branches between them and consolidate
with ferns and turf.
SHELTER SHEET:
With a waterproof poncho, groundsheet or a piece of plastic sheeting or
canvas you can quickly and easily make a number of different shelters which
will suffice until you can build something more efficient. Make use of
natural shelter (A) or make a triangular shelter with the apex pointing into
the wind (B). Stake or weigh down edges. If it is long enough curl the
sheeting below you running downhill so that it keeps out surface water (C).
Use dry grass or bracken as bedding.
NEVER lie on cold or damp
ground!!!
A closely woven fabric, though not impermeable will keep out most rain
if you set it at a steep angle. Fit one shelter a few inches within another
(D). The rain that does come through will rarely work its way through both
layers.
WARNING AGAINST DRIPPING:
With any woven fabric AVOID touching the inner surface during
rain or you will draw water through.
TEEPEES:
Best known from its North American from, the tepee occurs in many
cultures. THE QUICKEST TYPE TO ERECT has three or more angled support
poles, tied where they cross to make a cone. They can be tied on the ground
and lifted into place before covering with hides, birch bark panels or
sheeting. Leave an opening at the top for ventilation. Wider angle will give
greater area but shed rain less easily.
TROPICAL SHELTERS:
In rain forest and tropical jungle the ground is damp and likely to be
crawling with insects life, leeches (yerk!) and other undesirable. Instead
of bedding down on the ground you will be better in a raised bed.
Consequently you may want to make higher shelters. (Tarzan style!) Unless
you are at an altitude high enough to make the nights cold you will be less
concerned with protection from the wind than with keeping reasonably dry. A
thatching of palm, banana and other large leaves makes the best roofs and
walls.
ATAP:
Also known as Wait a while vine, Atap is especially useful, despite the
barbs at each leaf tip which make careful handling necessary. Look for any
plant with a similar structure (A) the bigger the better. The broader the
individual leaflets the better also. Atap is best used horizontally
splitting each leaf into two from the tip (B) then tearing it into 2 clean
halves down its length. Do not try to split from the tick end or you will
end up with a broken branch. Closely layer halves of Atap on your roof frame
(C). You can let it be a little less dense on walls. Woven Atap can be
particularly effective for the sides of a shelter.
ANOTHER METHOD:
Do not split down the leaf but fold the leaflets on one side across to
the other and interweave them (D). You will probably find this easiest if
you work first from one side then the other but it does takes practice.
THREE-LOBED LEAVES: Or
leaves cut in this fashion (E) can be locked over a thatching frame without
any other fixing being necessary to hold them in place (F).
ELEPHANT GRASS:
And other large leaves can be woven between the cross-pieces (G). Only a
small number are needed to produce a shelter very quickly.
LONG BROAD LEAVES:
Can be sown along the thatching battens with vines.
PALM & OTHER LONG STEMMED
LEAVES:
They can be secured by carrying the stem around the batten and over the
front of the leaf, where it is held in place by the nest leaf (I) Leaves
MUST overlap those below on the outside of the shelter.
BAMBOO:
This large-stemmed plant actually a grass, is a very versatile
building material and can be used for pole supports, flooring and walls.
The giant form of bamboo- which can be over 30m (100ft) high and 30cm (1ft)
in diameter - is an Asian plant found in damp places from India to China
both in the lowlands & on mountain slopes. But there are types native to
Africa and Australia and two which are found in the southern USA. Split
bamboo vertically to make roofing and guttering to collect rainwater. The
split stems, laid alternately to interlock with one another, form efficient
and waterproof plant tiles. Flatten split bamboo for smooth walls, floors or
shelving by cutting vertically through the joints every 1.25cm (1/2in) or so
around the circumference. It can then be smoothed out. The paper like
sheaths formed at the nodes can also be used as roofing material.
WARNING! WARNING! BAMBOO:
Take great care when collecting bamboo. It grows in clumps which are
often a tangled mass. Some stems are under tension and when cut fly
forcefully and dangerously apart, exploding in sharp slivers. Split bamboo can be razor sharp & cause serious injuries. The husk at
the base of bamboo stems carry small stinging hairs which cause severe skin
irritations.
LIGHT STRUCTURES:
Follow the methods outlined for the lean-to structure. You can extend it
with a less angled roof and a front wall or you can build vertical walls and
roof them over with deep eaves to give you extra shade from the sun and to
ensure that rain runs off well away from the hut. Dig a channel to carry any
water away. If you have bamboo or other strong material available to build a
firm frame, raise the floor of your shelter off the ground in tropical
climates, so reducing access to ground creatures. In Hot climates you
will need to make your roof solid to keep out the rain and give good
protection from the sun burns. If it projects well over the walls, you can
leave them as fairly open lattice to allow air to pass through. Grasses and
mud will seal cracks and all kinds of material will make a thatch if woven
between roof cross pieces of sticks or cords. In climates with heavy
rainfall use leaves or bark like tiles on top.
BUILDING WITH RUSHES:
When neither trees nor bamboo are available, rushes or other strong
stems can be tied in bundles to form structural pillars a method used by the
Marsh Arabs of Iraq. Tie reeds in long thick bundles by starting and
finishing with a clove-hitch knot. Choose the longest reeds and ensure that
their ends are spaced out along the length of the bundle so that they do not
cause a weal point by coming all together. The base should be a flat end,
the other should taper. Prepare more reed bundles, thinner and longer if
possible. They will be used for securing the sides of your shelter. Range
thick columns of reeds on the longs sides of your shelter site. Dig the
thick ends into the earth and link the columns a short way up each by
lashing on thinner bundles horizontally between them. Bend the tops of the
columns towards each other, overlapping them and binding them together. Add
more thin bundles to link the sides of the columns and carry up over the
arches. Interweave a wattle of reeds between this framework, using thinner
reeds until adequate shelter is provided or weave separate panels of leaves
& reeds to attach to it
SOD HOUSE (TURF):
Turf-built shelters are an alternative to log cabins when timber is
scarce or there are no tools to cut it. Cut sections of turf 45 X 15cm
(18X6in) and build with them like bricks, overlapping them to form a bond.
(Yes James!) Slopes the sides to give pitch to the roof- to support which
you will have to find spars of wood or other strong material. The greater
the pitch, the better rain will be repelled. The length of the spars will
determine the size of the structure. Lay turf on the roof as well, or
cover it with grass. Unless you have a great deal of turf available keep the
structure low, big enough to sit on the floor but not big enough to stand.
One side could be open facing the fire.
BROWSE BED:
It is famous but its construction requires a great deal more systematic
efforts. You need first of all a surprising quantity of the softest
available boughs. Among the best for the purpose are the small young
branches of the heavily needled balsam, but fir and even spruce will do
nearly as well. These boughs can in the absence of knife and axe be stripped
off by hand. They can easily be carried if laid one by one over a long stick
which has an upward angling fork at its bottom whereupon interlocking
needles will hold the light although bulky load in place. The operation is
started by placing a thick layer of resilient green boughs at the head of
the bed. These we lay with their underneath upward. They are placed, in
other words, opposite from the way they grow. The butts are kept well
covered and pointing toward the bottom of the bed. The browse bed is
thatched in this matter with row after row of boughs until it is a foot or
more thick. Whereupon it is reinforced and leveled by the poking in of soft
young evergreen tips wherever an opening can be found. Unfortunately it has
to be redone every third night.
SWINGING SHELTER:
A forked pole at least 4 to 5 inches thick and 8 feet long with a side
branch coming of at right angles to the fork and 4 to 5 feet below it is
required. To the side branch a rope or very strong vine loop is secured,
passed around a tree trunk and then bound very securely back on to the side
branch. The long arm of the pole should be horizontal & 6 to 7 feet long to
the ground. To make the shelter top, lash 3 feet stakes each about 2 inches
thick to each side of the pole. They should slope down at an angle of about
45 degrees & can be held outward by lashing braces across. Length ways to
these poles lash thatching battens each about 1 inch thick and 8 feet long.
These should be 6 inches apart. They are then thatched with grass, fern
palms or reeds. (branches and tree leaves are useless.) The bed is
suspended from the centre pole by ropes or vines to the 2 long sides which
are held apart by lashing 2 cross bars at head and foot. The bed is then
made up like the camp bed. This shelter can be swung round the tree trunk to
take advantage of sun or shade or get better protection from the weather.
SHELTER FOR THE MAKING:
Where we are with what we have, right now! A fallen tree is often at
hand, even when we are looking for one under whose roots a browse bed can be
laid so as to benefit from the luxury of a crackling night blaze. Nor is it
unusual to come upon a dry indentation in a stream bank that can be quickly
roofed with brush and cheered by a campfire in front. No canopy is more
pleasant under favorable conditions than the open sky. The only refinement
we want on such nights if indeed we desire any, are a mattress of evergreen
boughs a long hardwood fire and maybe behind us a log to reflect warmth onto
those portions not turned toward the friendly heat. On other occasions-when
there is a storm or cold or when the situation is such that our every
reasonable long range effort should be directed at conserving the utmost
vigor.
The time and energy required for throwing up a bivouac
may well be returned several fold.
Under circumstances when it
may be desirable or perhaps obligatory to remain in one area, we may as well
enjoy the sanctuary that for a combination of reasons is the best reasonably
available. This will be especially true if sufficient food is at least
temporarily lacking, for then we may expect strength to be maintained in
direct proportions to our ability to remain comfortably and warmly relaxed.
CONIFEROUS SHELTER:
No one needs have much difficulty in finding sanctuary in softwood
country, for no axe IS NECESSARY and in fact, we can get along very
well without even a knife. A heavy grove of big evergreen itself affords
considerable shelter. From sudden shower you can keep dry by just lingering
under a spruce or pine. There is usually sufficient small growth in such a
forest to break off and angle in lean-to form against a protective log or
trunk.
CAPTAIN BRION NICHE:
It is very simple to make a niche by stripping of a few lower branches
from a well situated tree. These boughs augmented by others from nearby
trees will quickly floor & thatch the shelter. Such a nook is particularly easy to heat
with the great amount of fuel almost ALWAYS available in such coniferous terrain. If a blizzard is scuffing or rain
dripping and some easily handled bark such as that from birch trees is
available we'll probably want to insert a few sheets at least overhead.
"LEAN TO": THE MOST COMMON
& PRACTICAL IN EMERGENCY. THE LEAN TO IS AN EXCELLENT SHELTER IN ALL SEASONS
BECAUSE YOU CAN USE ALL KIND OF CAMP FIRES.
A pole framework is covered with a thatching of evergreen boughs or
rushes. When constructing the lean-to, find 2 trees about 7 to 9ft apart
with fairly level, firm ground between them. The distance between the trees
will be the length of the opening of the lean-to although it is possible to
incorporate variations. The number of people requiring shelter should
determine the size. When constructed for one man it should be made long for
him to sleep across the open mouth of the shelter, whereas for more than one
it should be planned for them to sleep lengthwise. One or both ends of the
ridge pole may be supported by a pie tripod if a second tree is not
available. This leaves the builder a wider choice of sites.
It should be REMEMBERED that
the steeper the slope angle of the roof the better it will shed rain and
reflect heat from the fire.
A 45 degree slope angle is generally considered a suitable compromise
between available interior space and rain shedding effectiveness. Once the
framework has been constructed proceed with the covering. Spruce boughs make
an excellent natural covering although the branches of any coniferous and of
many leave trees will do. They are placed on the lean to in the same manner
as shingles on a roof, the first row at the bottom and the last row at the
top. The brush ends of the boughs are placed down overlapping the butt ends
of the previous row. This method of thatching ensures that the rain will be
shed more readily. Continue to lay rows of boughs in this fashion until the
top of the lean to is covered. Repeat the entire procedure of thatching
until the entre roof is covered to a depth of at least 6". The triangular
sides are filled in with large boughs set butt end up as in thatching. The
parachute shroud or a canvas or the covering of plane wings are all
indicated to cover the lean to and to replace the evergreen boughs or with
them if need be.
WHEN VERY COLD:
When it is very cold you first place the canvas upon the frame then you
cover it with branches and evergreen. Inside the shelter the white color
of the canvas will better reflect the camp fire thus greater comfort.
WHEN VERY WET:
If however we run into a lot of rain or melting snow, then you MUST
put the evergreen boughs first then on top you put the canvas. Using
this method will help to keep the shelter dry. When possible it is HIGHLY
RECOMMENDED to lay a second layer of canvas.
ADVANTAGES OF THE LEAN TO:
The lean to is an excellent shelter in all seasons because you can
use all kind of camp fires. The shelter has a low entrance and its depth
is the width of a sleeping bag which permits for one person to have all his
body exposed to the heat of the fire and to be very comfortable even
under the greatest cold.(mmmMMM!!!) One can construct such a
shelter for many persons yet their head or feet are the only exposed part to
the fire so it is not as comfy as if you were parallel to the fire's warmth.
One can construct 2 lean to face to face with a fire in the middle but it is
difficult to place them so as to AVOID the smoke swirling into one or
the other lean to. First you think you have succeeded then the least draft
blows it into the shelter make it unbearable.
JOIN THEM IT’S BETTER!:
So while you are at it, why not join those 2 lean to that are facing one
another so as to make a big shelter. Just keep on working till their top
reach one another and there it is
LEAN TO # 2 TWO TOO!:
More complicated frames are easily enough assembled, particularly when
the joints are fastened if only by lashing by lashing them with fine but
tough spruce roots. Or with wiry birch or willow withes.(#?) Natural
forks can be used instead, however. So can the braces.
NO NEED OF KNIFE EVEN:
Although a knife will simplify the task, not even that IS NECESSARY.
The skeleton can then be draped, interfaced or otherwise covered with green
branches, bark, moss, grass, reeds, leafy vines and other such materials.
The few basic principles are self evident. When thatching a roof, as we do
with bark, we will naturally start at the eaves and lay the bottom of each
successive layer across the top of the thickness beneath, so that any water
will tend to flow unimpeded off the edge. If we happen to build a roof with
a double pitch, we'll further waterproof that by bending bark over the ridge
and fastening or weighting it down on each slant.
BOTTOM THATCHING IS A
MUST:
When thatching the walls, we will of course start at the bottom as if
shingling and work our way up layer by layer with each higher series ALWAYS
covering the one immediately below. Water will then be
more apt to run down the outside of the structure instead of into it.
GOING ABOUT THE
CONSTRUCTION:
Probably the most satisfactory way to describe a few of the more common
types of lean-to is by means of the following self-explanatory illustration.
From them, even the newest greenhorn can figure out the most practical way
to use whatever wilderness materials happen to be at hand If we have
something such as a tarpaulin to stretch over a pole framework, our work
will be considerably lessened. This will also be true to a considerable
extent if only the roof can thus be quickly made waterproof.
GOOD TO CARRY ON YOU AT
ALL TIME:
A large rectangle of plastic, folded and carried in a shirt pocket is a good
thing to take along at all times if only for possible emergency use as a
rainy day cover. Or use the survival blanket even a large strong garbage.
OPEN LEAN-TO SHELTER #3:
If there is nothing solid to lean a roof against and you are not trying
to keep out of heavy rain or a blizzard. Use panels of wattle or frames
covered in grass for protection. Erect a horizontal cross-piece between
trees or on simple supports. On the windward side lean a panel of wattle or
tie or lean saplings at 45 degrees to make a roof. Add side walls as
necessary.
REFLECTOR:
(A) Site your fire on the leeward. Add side pieces and this is
the trick, build a reflector (B) on the other side of the fire to MAKE SURE
that you get the full benefit of the warmth.
WHY NOT A HUT? MAKING
WALLS FOR BETTER SHELTERS:
It may be expedient to build an emergency shelter so substantial that
its wall can be additionally insulated by heaping sod or earth against them.
If these walls are leaned in slightly from the bottom, gravity will tend to
hold such reinforcements more firmly. The roof can also be made warmer by
covering it with several inches of vegetation, topped by enough dirt or
preferably more durable sod to keep everything in place. An animal skin,
some contrivance of woven vines or perhaps an available fabric may be hung
over an opening to serve as a door. An open stone fireplace can be made in
the centre of the dirt floor of such a shelter. Although a chimney hole will
then have to be cut in the roof for ventilation, this vent may be kept
covered when the fire is entirely out. It should not be closed otherwise
because of the threat of CARBON MONOXIDE Poisoning.
DOOR IN RELATION TO WIND:
When the wind is any problem, the opening of a temporary shelter is
usually placed on the side away from it.
DOME STRUCTURE shelter:
Even if no wood large enough for the ordinary lean-to is available, we can still make a very comfortable structure from growth as slight as
willow. Let us obtain first a quantity of the longest wands we can find.
We can then, after examining them, draw a rough outline of the house. This
at most should not ordinarily be much wider than the average length of the
material. The base of such a structure may be oval. It may be rectangular,
in which case the final shelter may well resemble a barrel split lengthwise.
Whatever the general conformation in other words we will find it
advantageous structurally to employ rounded sides and roof. Lets start by
securing the larger end of one wand in the ground on the outline there
scratched which for purposes of illustration let us assume is a circle.
Opposite the first wand on the round line, let us set the bigger end of the
second switch. We can then draw the tops together in the middle and tie them
with roots, string, vines, rawhide or any convenient material. Let us
similarly set and bend another 2 wands so that above the centre of the
circle they cross the first arch at right angles. At this apex we will lash
all 4 together. The curve of the dome roof now defined, will govern the
decreasing size of subsequent arches. A few inches away or perhaps as much
as a foot or so if our covering is to be canvas or light skins, we may make
a slightly lower arch parallel to the first. This we may cross at right
angles with a similar arch. This crisscrossing operation we may continue in
such a fashion except to allow for an entrance, tying each of the numerous
joints, until the frame is sufficiently sturdy. There need be no particular
methodicalness, however for functional variations are as numerous as
materials and situations. If additional supports are later needed these can
be added as necessary. We may weave moss or grass through the final
basketlike framework in lieu of anything better, perhaps laying on a second
coat which can be both secured and insulated with a thick plastering of mud
and snow.
TARP-CABIN:
This shelter requires a considerable amount of work and when completed
will a degree of permanency that other don't have. In building the cabin
particular attention MUST be paid to the choice of location, as
the cabin is not portable. Choose an area close to water supply, yet not in
a valley. The ridges offer much more comfortable living conditions
freedom from insects, flooding. The area should also offer an abundant
supply of long straight logs 4 to 8" in diameter. Build 4 walls log cabin
fashion to a height of about 3ft. and then build a frame work of light poles
to support a covering of parachute material or canvas.
CANVAS:
From this stage its a simple matter to place this material over the
framework to form a finished shelter. It is preferable to use a double
layer of fabric with an air space between to improve the insulating and
water shedding qualities of the roof.
NO CANVAS:
To construct a hut when no canvas nor parachute, you MUST then
build the walls to the desired height and to add a roof made of #motte de
terre ou chaume# Don't try to build a complicated roof. All you need is a
roof as smooth as possible that will shed the rain at the back.
The lower the roof the
easier to heat.
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5. Water
a. Requirements
SLOSHING ALONG:
Water is vital when you’re exerting yourself. Any appreciable activity,
including walking with a heavy pack, will cause you to perspire much more
than in your every day humdrum existence. You can only compensate for this
by drinking proportionately more. Since you will surely get thirsty so take
advantage of that urge but REMEMBER to do it slowly. Sip your water, don't
chug it, particularly if it's from a cold mountain stream. Ditto for ice and
snow in wintertime. Salt tablets are usually recommend for extended trips
involving continuous strenuous activity.
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5. Water
b. Finding
FINDING WATER:
There are no handy kitchen faucets in the wilds except in the larger
campgrounds with their trailers & recreation vehicles bumper to bumper, &
six-man tents guy line to guy line. If you're not in one of these, and don't
happen to be hiking along the course of a river or canoeing over chains of
lakes, where do you find water? Your map will help if it's detailed enough.
Almost any water source of any size, including annual spring freshet, will
be marked on a geodesic map. Even so, it's a good idea to be aware of where
water is most likely to be found, just in case you left the map at the last
log rest stop.
Besides, knowing nature, being familiar with
its habits, gives you a real sense of understanding & accomplishment that is
very much a part of the joy of camping. In mountainous and forest regions
such as Eastern and Western Canada, & the USA and most of Northern Europe,
water rarely presents a problem. Almost any downhill country, be it a long
slow valley or a deep gorge, will lead to it. These natural formations
developed through water erosion, and the sculpture tells the tale. As you
walk, keep your eyes open for a change not only in terrain but in vegetation
as well. If you see a crooked line of willows or willow like trees in the
distance:
IT'S ALMOST A SURE BET YOU'LL FIND A
STREAM WHEN YOU GET THERE.
The mountain ahead is bare, with no water or greenery in sight. One side
comes down steeply to a heavy rock formation; the other side slopes gently
down to a valley and gently up to another mountain. Head for the sloping
side rather than the steep escarpment. It has a much slower run off larger
surface area, and thus a greater likelihood of retained water. Cottonwoods
in arid country serve much the same purpose as willows in country more
hospitable. A chain of cottonwood in the distance indicates a river bed.
Whether that bed turns out to be wet or dry is another question. But if it's
dry, examine the ground by one of the largest and most ancient of the
cottonwoods, on the inside bank of the old river's curve; you will usually
fund a small pool of water. At least there should be enough ground moisture
so that if you really need water you can dig down a foot or so and find
seepage.
REMEMBER THOUGH THAT USUALLY IT DOES NOT
PAY TO DIG FOR WATER.
With the amount of energy used the moisture lost in sweat usually far
exceeds that gained from the hole you have dug. Any lush vegetation in arid
terrain indicates water in one form or another. Birds, such as Doves** or
Blackbirds, in flock on the ground, quail in any quantity, are other signs
of a water source nearby. You will need 2 quarts a day under average
conditions but in the desert or during periods of heavy activity this rises
to 4 quarts or more per person per day.
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5. Water
c. Filtering &
Disinfecting
WATER PURITY:
Once you have found a water source, you have 2 old drinking rules to
choose from, depending on how healthy you are, how cautious you are and
where you are. The first is, when doubt about water, purify it. The second
is, a lively bubbling stream cleans itself in 30 feet of flowing over rocks
and sands. Or as one old codger I know, referring to the same quality of
stream bed, puts it succinctly, "If the cow's around the bend, the water's
fit to drink." Which rule you follow is up to you. We tend to use the second
when in mountainous, wooded country. Our stomachs might not be cast iron,
but they are pretty resistant to Montezuma's Revenge and La Turista. Yet as
pollution increases we lean more & more to the first rule. Boiling takes a
lot of fuel and a lot of time to cool off but in dangerous regions it is
better to drink a lot of tea rather than wait for the water to cool off.
Halazone 1 tablet per pint of water or 2 if in ANY doubt. You MUST still let
it stand 1/2 hour or more to be safe to drink but taste funny like a
swimming pool. Yet aerating the water by pouring it back and forth between
two containers several times will eliminate most of the chlorine taste. This
chemical is quite volatile and if you hold your breath while drinking it,
you will hardly taste a thing.
WATER WARNING:
Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE rigorously avoided. MAKE
SURE YOU BOIL IT FOR 10 MINUTES. Just moistening your lips with 1 drop of
impure water may sicken you to the point where you can't travel!
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5. Water
d. Storing & Toting
Back to Top
6. Fire
a. Location &
Site Preparation
WHERE TO BUILD A FIRE:
A fireplace is most safely built on a rock outcropping. A sandy stretch or
hard-packed, stony, or clay-like mineral soils are also good. But building
on loamy ground with a high content of organic material, particularly in
heavily forested country, can mean igniting subterranean
roots, which sometimes smolder for weeks before resurfacing, yards away
from the original, long since forgotten fire. A tree will make a million
matches, and it only takes one match to destroy a million trees. You can
NEVER be too carefully. Forest fires are immensely destructive. Several
factors besides the ground conditions dictate the location of your fire.
There should be no overhanging branches lower than ten feet above the
flames. "Squaw wood", the dead limbs still held fast to a tree which
incidentally, make good firewood & whose removal does no damage should be
even higher. Don't build the fire on a promontory or other exposed place.
The winds that spring up the moment you've got the fire going will fan the
flames, making them burn well too well. You'll use much more wood than
necessary; it will heat poorly, since cold air will constantly replace the
warm; and most important, you'll greatly increase the danger of forest fire.
A good gust will not only pick up sparks and send them flying, but sometimes
carry off a two- or three-inch long twig or splinter, whose weight has been
almost reduced to nothing by burning, but whose centre is still glowing hot.
A last consideration, one of comfort, is smoke. Here I'm supposed to tell
you to MAKE SURE the fire is so located in relation to your tent that the
smoke stays away. Good luck Charlie Brown! I don't ever seem to build a fire
that sends smoke where it is supposed to. Still, it's worth a try guessing
in which direction the fickle wind is least likely to blow.
THE FIRE PLACE:
A camp fireplace serves two functions: to contain the fire and to
balance your grill or pan if your COOK-KING over it. Although there are
countless designs serving these purposes you are best off sticking with
either the U or the keyhole. The keyhole fireplace is, again, just what the
name implies. Round at one end and tapering to a six- or eight-inch-wide
slit at the other. It is very functional. You burn wood in a circle. As
coals form, you poke them over into the slot. Your cooking is thus not
subjected to the vagrancy's of leaping flames, but has an even, constant
coal heat.
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6. Fire
b. Choosing &
Gathering Materials
BRANCHES OFF:
If you are using an axe or hatchet to chop dried branches for your fire
from a downed tree trunk, you should begin at the top (head) of the tree and
work your way down to the base. To cut the branch, keep the tool parallel to
the trunk and chop from the head of the tree in the direction of the root or
base. This will seem counterintuitive, chopping into the "V", but is the
correct way (from centuries of experience) to "limb" a tree. Better yet, put
down the sharp object and just yank away at the branches. If they don't
crack off easily, they are probably wetter than you want anyway. Using an
axe or a hatchet can be extremely hazardous.
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6. Fire
c. Firestarting &
Maintenance
STARTING A FIRE:
If it's been raining heavily or you're in a swamp, you may have to tuck
some fire starter another small item to REMEMBER to stow away in odd
crannies of your gear inside the kindling. Either fire ribbon or solid
tablets like Hexamine and Heatabs work surprisingly well. Leftover candle
stubs will do, but they just don't turn out the same BTU's. Next you need
some kindling because tinder will not generate enough heat. Make a pyramid
of those pencil-sized & slightly larger branches to help your fire start
burning. Leave some air space between the tinder below and the kindling
above, some more space between the kindling sticks themselves. If you want a
rule of thumb, the distance between the two burning pieces of wood, be they
twigs or logs, should be about half their diameter. This interval is vital
not only to permit circulation of the necessary oxygen, but also to reflect
the heat back and forth between the two sticks. It's very difficult to keep
one log burning well. The flame from one log burning is about the same as
the sound of one hand clapping. Two of them with space in between will burn
just fine. A good camper should be able to get all the fire he needs for
these purposes from one large fallen branch. Tinder from the twigs at its
tips, kindling from the branchlets and fuel from the main bough broken into
6 or 7 inch long pieces. Give it a try next time. P/S: Don't forget to
quench the fire!
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6. Fire
d. Camp Stoves
STOVE YES! KITCHEN SINK NO!:
By all means plan to build a fire when it's possible, when you really
need one, when you really, really want one, but take a stove along for most
of your cooking even cook-king.
THE LITTLE STOVE THAT COULD:
The Optimus/Svea/Primus Brands of stoves, products of the consolidation
of Sweden's leading manufacturers in the field, are the closest thing to
Aladdin's lamp modern technology has to offer.
WHITE GAS STOVES:
The Primus 71, weighing twenty oz, & the Svea 123; 18 ounces, are
compact little stoves that utilize white or unleaded, gas and need no
priming. They are miracles of efficiency. We usually manage to cook anywhere
from four to eight hot meals on one filling of the Primus's half-pint tank,
depending on the menu, the altitude, and the temperature. Even eight hot
meals, of course, aren't enough for most camping trips. To carry spare white
gas, you'll need one of the slim spun aluminum bottles usually sold wherever
the stoves are. These have gasket screw tops. Although they may look as if
they might leak, they NEVER do at least not the first half dozen years.
After that I've found it best to replace the gasket.
Additionally, you will need a doll sized funnel, preferably with a fine
mesh filter as an extra precaution against impurities. The funnel enables
you to pour gas from the bottle into the stove without spilling. A tiny
shielded cleaning wire mounted on a flat aluminum blade comes with each
stove. Use it. Just poke it through the flame hole once or twice each time
before lighting the stove. That's to make certain nothing has clogged this
vital orifice.
Most of the small white gas stoves work on the self-pressure principle.
The heat of the flame expands the gas below, forcing it as vapor up through
the flame hole. If the hole is clogged, the vaporized gas has to go
somewhere else or the stove would explode like a Molotov cocktail. To this
end there is a safety valve. However, I've NEVER had any problems with mine,
nor do I know anyone who has. To ready the stove, check that the valve is
closed, then fill the tank about three quarters of the way up with gas.
NEVER fill it completely. There has to be room for the fluid to expand into
gas vapor. Otherwise the stove won't function well. Next, take the cleaning
wire and poke it into the burner hole a couple of times to MAKE SURE it's
clear. Do it even the first time you try out a brand-new stove, just to get
into the habit.
Another habit to get into is putting the cleaning wire back into the
base, lid, or wind screen of the stove somewhere, in other words, where you
won't forget it when you go to pack the stove up again. The there's my way.
I just pick up the stove, unscrew the filler cap on the tank, and huff and
puff until I've driven enough fuel out the burner to get some down into the
vaporizing depression. Then I screw the filler cap back on. This method
requires cocking your head and keeping the stove relatively vertical. Also,
drinking gasoline is most unhealthy, so don't let your mind wander and
absentmindedly think you're holding on to a canteen. There is no reason why
you should get gasoline in your mouth if you are careful and no one slaps
your back heartily while your huffing. If you should spit it out. I am what
I would call relatively careful and have NEVER had a mouthful of trouble.
Butane stoves: are next to worthless below freezing, and at 15"F the fuel
turns to slush so you can forget about it altogether. High altitude cooking
with butane also does not work well.
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6. Fire
e. Caring for Burns
<grin>
Back to Top
7. Camp Activities & Projects
a. Knots, Lashing &
Ropework
PLENTY OF ROPE:
Almost any camping trip calls for a length of rope at one time or
another to hang your food up with, to rig a tarp tent, to tow a canoe, or
even just for games of tug of war among the kids. On most trips 50 feet
double that figure for canoe camping or tarp tenting of 8 inches nylon rope
is just about right It has a breaking strength of 400-800 pounds, depending
on type & manufacturer, which is sufficient for most purposes. Quarter-inch
nylon has a breaking strength of 1,200-1,800 pounds, which you'll need to
tow or track a canoe. Braided nylon "parachute cord" with a 500 pound
breaking strength, available in hundred foot skeins, is good for all around
suspension work from tarps to clotheslines. Nylon rope gives a bit, which
means you have to check it occasionally when using it for hitches. But you
should get into that habit anyhow. Its strength is two and a half time that
of hemp; it frays less; it's easily whipped by holding a lit match at one
end, melting it a bit; and it's hardly susceptible to mildew. Even so, keep
it dry & clean, and coiled when in storage around camp or at home.
WHIPPING ROPES:
The end of a rope MUST BE secured in some way so that it does not
unravel. To prevent the strands from fraying, bind the rope with twine. Good
binding or "whipping" MUST BE tight and neat to be effective. If it is too
slack it will work loose of fall off. It is difficult to make a good
whipping with thick cord and very***? this is prone to slip. Experience will
enable you to match the thickness to the job. Use the whipping techniques to
add a comfortable grip to handles of axes and parangs or, thicker to replace
handle of a knife.
1) Lay a length of twine along the side of the rope, leaving its end (*a)
projecting a hand's length beyond the rope's end.
2) Whip the twine (*b) around the rope, working towards the end, and
gradually covering the piece you have laid along it.
3) Now form the loose end of the twine (*a) into a loop and lay it back
along the whipped section.
4) Carry on with the whipping covering the loop until you have nearly
reached the end of the rope.
5) Now pass the end (*b) whipping through the loop and pull the short end
(*A) tight. Trim off ends neatly.
KNOTS:
There is a knot for every job and it is important to select the right
one for the task at hand. You NEVER know when you may need to tie a knot so
learn their uses and how to tie each one - well enough to tie them in the
dark and under all kinds of conditions. Learn to untie them too. The only
thing that is worse that tying a knot that comes undone is knot that CANNOT
be undone at a crucial moment. In the instructions for individual knots that
follow the end of the rope or cord being used to tie the knot is referred to
as the "live end" to distinguish it from the other end of the rope or
"standing part".
NOTE ON ROPES AND LINES.
Ropes can be made from any pliable, fibrous material producing strands
of sufficient length & strength. Nylon rope have the advantage of great
inherent strength, lightness, resistance to water, insects and rot. However
nylon rope should not be the automatic choice if choosing equipment. Nylon
has the disadvantage that it can melt if subjected to heat and friction on a
rope produces heat. It is also slippery when wet. While its tensile strength
is good, nylon also tends to snap if subjected to tension over an edge - it
does not have to be a very sharp edge either, so BE CAREFUL of this.
TYPES OF ROPE:
Kernmantel type encloses a central core of strands in an outer sheath.
Easier to handle, except when icy or wet, but no strong as hawser. It can
unravel if cut. Traditional Hawser-laid rope has 3 bundles of fibers twisted
together. If one is severed the others may hold.
CHOOSING ROPE:
Match type, thickness and length of rope you carry to the demands you
expect to make on it. Nylon will have advantages in very damp climates and
when weight is critical but REMEMBER its drawbacks. Thickness of 7mm
(5/16in) and below are difficult to handle. Rope about 9-10mm (3/8in) is
usually recommended for Lashing, Throwing and Mountaineering. It can be used
for safety lines and for climbing, provided belay and abseiling techniques
are used. It is not thick enough for a hand over hand and foot grip. A
length of 30-40m (100-125ft) would then be as much as can be carried without
encumbrance. Climbing rope MUST BE elastic, to absorb some of the shock,
without putting enormous strain on anyone who falls. See if it has the
approval of official mountaineering bodies or conforms to the British
Standard 3184 (for Hawser laid ropes)
TAKING CARE OF ROPE:
Rope MUST BE protected from unnecessary exposure to damp or strong
sunlight and in case of natural fibers from attack by rodent and insects. If
it does get wet do not force-dry it in front of a fire. Do not unnecessarily
drag it along or leave it on the ground. Dirt can penetrate and particles of
grit work away at the fibers from inside the rope. If weather conditions
will make drying possible, it is worth to wash a very dirty rope in clean
water. Try to keep a rope for the job for which it was intended. Do not use
climbing rope as clothesline or lashing if you can AVOID it. Though in
survival situation you may have to use the same length for many purposes.
Whipping the end of the rope will prevent fraying. To prevent a rope
becoming tangled, store and carry it in a coil or skein. It will be easier
to handle and to pay out when needed. Rope is a valuable equipment. You may
have to trust your life to it. Do your best to kept in good condition
SIMPLE COIL:
Make a coil of rope 35-45cm (14-18in) in diameter, keeping each circle
of the rope alongside the next without twisting or tangling. Leave a length
at each end ready for fastening.
1): Bend one end back along the coil and wrap it with the other end.
2) Feed the "wrapping" end through the loop and pull to secure
3): Tie off with a reef knot shown later.
FOR LONGER ROPES:
If you wish to carry long ropes over your shoulder or suspended from a
belt or from a pack, form a skein. Loop the rope backward and forward over
your arm, letting it hang down about 35-60cm (18-24in) long. Leave the ends
free. Take both ends together and wrap them several times around the skein.
Make a loop and take this through the top part of the #skein# and finally
pass the ends through this loop. Now tie off on to your pack with a reef
knot.
BUSH WINDLASS:
A bush windlass capable of taking a very heavy strain on a rope can be
made by selecting a site where a tree forks low to the ground with the fork
facing the direction in which the pull is required. Alternatively a stout
fork can be driven in and anchored with the 1-2-3 method. The windlass
portion is a forked log. The forks are notched to take the lever up to 7
feet long. The rope is passed round the roller a few times so that it locks
upon itself. (If fork of the roller is long the rope may pass through the
fork). This type of bush windlass has many uses.
NET MAKING: SNARE MAKING TOO!:
Net can be made either by making knots along a pre-cut lengths of line
of by knitting mesh row by row. They are not only USEFUL for fishing. A gill
net can also be hung between trees to catch bird and purse net, made from
twine can be placed over animals burrows .Use the same technique to make a
hammock from strong twine.
GIL NET:
Make this from parachute cords or from two thickness of twine. Parachute
cord consist of inner core of fine line within an outer core. Pull the fine
inner line out and ut it into manageable and equal lengths or cut lengths of
thinner strings. Their length will determine the dept of your net, which
will be about 3/8" that of the length of the line. Decide how wide you want
your net and set the 2 poles that distance apart. Tie a length of parachute
cord outer or thicker twine between the 2. Cut a piece of wood about 3-5cm
(1 1/4in) across. Use this as a gauge to space out the thinner vertical
threads (inner core*). Fold each length double and use the bight to make a
Prusik knot over the top cord and repeat across its length. Slide the Prusik
knots along to space them out equally using your gauge. For the first row,
working form left to right, ignore the very first individual strand, but
take the second of the pair. Hold it with the first strand of the next pair
and tie both together in an overhand knot. Take the remaining strand with
the first of the next pair and knot. Continue along the line, using your
gauge to control spacing. Proceed to the next row in the same way but this
time include the outside lines to produce a row of diamonds. Continue until
the line is used up. To finish off the bottom, stretch another thicker line
across between the supports and tie off all the infers (or thinner strings)
in pairs around it. Carry each pair around it twice, Separate the pair and
tie off around the pair. Complete the pair by securing the top and the
bottom lines at each corner of the net so that the net will not slip off the
ends. Any surplus can be used for attaching the net to supports and weights
to keep it in position when in use.
KNITTING A NET:
A method suitable for nylon fishing line or nay other fine lien. you
need a horizontal sting between posts, a main gauge, and a needle. (or just
call the nearest hardware store!!!). Make the needle (*A) about 15cm long by
2.5cm wide (6 X 1in) from hardwood or bamboo. Make a notch at either end and
wind line around the whole needle; or try something more traditional like
the lower drawing. The needle MUST BE smooth. The line is gradually unwound
as you make the net. To make the net, tie a top of required length between
uprights. Begin by tying a clove hitch thinner line (*C) take the needle
behind the top line and bring it forward to make another clove hitch (D*).
Repeat along the line, spacing the knots out with your gauge. (E*) When the
rope row is complete go to the other side of the post (easier than working
backward) and make the next row. Make each new loop large enough to form a
square of mesh (half square at each side). Take the needle through the loop
of the row above from behind, round the back of the loop and then through
the front of the loop it makes. (*F). Adjust the depth with your gauge
before you tighten. (*G). Switch sides again and work back in the opposite
direction for the next row and continue until the nest is the required
length. Tie off the bottom line with another thicker twine using the make
knot but keeping the line straight without loops. Leave some free line at
both ends. Tie in the ends at the top corners and the net is completed.
Back to Top
7. Camp Activities & Projects
b. Axemanship (& Saws)
All potential Axe handlers should read:
An Ax to Grind- A Practical Ax Manual
AXES:
A fire axe is part of the equipment of any boat or plane, but an
axe-head, to be fitted to an improvised handle, is a USEFUL additional piece
of equipment for anyone to carry. One of about 500-750gr (1-1 1/2 lb) is
ideal. Use your knife to fashion a handle when it is needed.
AXE HANDLE:
Any straight, knot-free hardwood is suitable -ash and hickory are ideal.
In the Tropics the flukes of Buttress trees are excellent: slightly curved,
straight-grained and easy to work. Cut two notches into the fluke of a
buttress, spaced to the desired length. Hit along the side of fluke close to
the cuts. It will split away at their depth.
FITTING THE HEAD:
Whittle the handle into shape with one end cut to fit the hole in the
axe-head, cutting a notch in that end. Make a wedge to fit the notch. With
the head in place drive in the notch then soak the axe in the water
overnight to tighten the head on the shaft. ALWAYS CHECK AXE-HEADS FOR
TIGHTNESS BEFORE USING THEM!
SHARPENING AN AXE:
An axe with a blunt edge becomes NO MORE THAN an inefficient hammer so
keep it sharp, it will save energy. A file is best for getting rid of burrs,
and a whetstone for imparting the sharp edge. A file is a one way tool-it
works when pushed not pulled. Prop axe-head between a log and a peg. ALWAYS
try to sharpen inwards from cutting edge to AVOID producing burrs. Use a
file or rougher stone first to remove rocks and burrs. Then finish with a
smoother stone, using a circular motion. Don't drag the stone off the
cutting edge. Push ON the blade. Turn the axe over. Repeat the process
circling in the opposite direction.
AVOID BUYING AN AXE HEAD LESS THAN 2 LBS:
These are toys which have LITTLE VALUE IN SURVIVAL or for sporting
needs. The ideal weight is 2 1/2 lbs., not counting the handle. A 3 lb. is
better in frozen wood but heavier to handle for the average user. One MUST
also consider the biting edge and MAKE SURE that the edge is no smaller than
4 inches wide and neither be too thin nor too thick. In the first case it
would break easily and in the second the sharpening would be difficult to
maintain. The IDEAL axe one may find is what is called the Hudson Bay type.
HANDLE CHOICE:
Now as for the handle, in principle one should not buy a painted one
which could or would hide defects such as knots which would weaken the
handle. The best ones are from Ash or Oak. Second is too choose the right
handle length. Even if the short handle may be easier to carry around, the
long one is much more efficiency. The proper length depends on your height.
A simple method to discover the proper length is: Let your hand drop on your
side and measure from the center of your hand down to the ground, this is
the length that the handle should be for you. If it is longer you will have
tendency to overreach which is very hard on the handle and can break it, if
too short then under reach which is DANGEROUS for your feet or legs. The
handle MUST BE straight and not curve to right or left. To discover this
default, let your axe rest flat on its head, with the biting edge facing
upward and align it with the handle. If the handle shows a curve to right or
left then choose another handle.
Once your axe all set then you can paint the head all the way to edge
using a bright phosphorescent color which makes it easier to locate at night
or simply prevent rust as well. Also the handle should be painted from the
head down a few inches which would prevent the water or snow to penetrate in
the handle near the head and to make it rot. Beside if the handle has a
tendency to come off the head one quick look would show the non painted area
that is supposed to be inside the axe head.
MAINTENANCE OF THE HANDLE:
Even with a good handle fit it comes after a time that the iron starts
to come off a bit as we use it. You MUST then #shake the iron by hitting the
butt against a wood log#. The handle has a certain sharpness at the butt
thus you MUST BE CAREFUL when hitting the wood log which could split the
handle. Thus it is preferable to saw a small amount of this butt so that the
hit will have a straight impact. One keeps all the flexibility of the handle
by oiling it with Linseed oil, the iron is greased when rain to AVOID rust.
BROKEN AXE HANDLE:
Using an axe takes practice and while gaining experience axe handle
often get broken-usually because the head misses the target and the handle
takes all the blow (*A). To remove a broken handle, the easiest way is to
put in a fire, burying as much as possible of the metal in the earth to
prevent it loosing temper- single-headed (*B) doubled headed (C*). Since it
is very difficult to remove a broken handle from the axe head; THE BEST
METHOD is to place the axe head in the ground and to burn the handle. You
bury the biting edge down to the height of the handle. Make a small fire on
the head of the axe. The biting edge protected by the ground will not be
affected and the handle heated white by the fire will come off with no
trouble at all. THE OPERATION MUST BE DONE VERY QUICKLY TO SUCCEED WELL; but
MAKE SURE that the earth is WET surrounding the axe iron. The wet earth
prevents the slicing edge to loose its hardness. MAKE SURE that you put the
whole axe after in cold water. Or have spare handle then insert it in the
axe MAKING SURE that the head is well perpendicular to the handle. To insert
the handle, hold it using the left hand and hit the butt with another axe or
hammer or stone if need be, the handle will come up by itself very well.
This operation MUST BE done quickly and then as soon as possible put the
whole axe iron in cold water. Don't hit the head down on the handle but the
other way around, you will then note that the end of the handle comes off
the axe by a few inches this is to allow the insertion of a "corner" which
will prevent the head from coming off. If you don't have a "corner" then you
have to make one up, ITS ESSENTIAL. Use the excess part that you cut off for
this purpose. Use hard wood only as material. Now using a hacksaw you cut
off the excess but it is good practice to let the handle overshoot by a few
lines should you need to adjust the "corner" once more later on. This is
where you get your "corner" from the excess handle part that you cut off you
use part of it as your "corner" to insert in the slit and hammer it down in
the axe head.
NOTE ON BROKEN TOOL HANDLE OFF:
Nothing is easier to remove a broken tool handle which has blocked the
head. Cut the handle as near the head of the tool as possible, bore a hole
deep enough in the broken part of the handle and in this hole pour some
kerosene which you then light up. The wood being impregnated of kerosene
will burn easily and all you then have to do is to remove the ashes and fix
a new handle. However I would prudent to use such a method for an axe since
the fire would probably affect the tempering quality of the steel.
AXE NATURAL HANDLE:
*If you MUST replace a handle use a straight handle rather than a curb
one, you will save time and effort. Give a rough shape to the handle and
make a slit at the end which will receive the blade. Once the handle well in
place strengthen the whole thing by inserting a thin slice of wood in the
slit that you have made, try the axe and knock in again the slice of wood to
make it stronger holding.
AXE ADDED NOTE:
*The usual 1 1/4 pound axe on a hickory handle will be light enough to
carry & to do the work intended to whereas the 3/4 axe is a two handle tool
and is designed for cutting larger logs for pioneering projects. Keep the
edge or "bit" sharp not just sharp enough to chew but to bite and keep the
handle tight, if it gets loose drive in the wedge harder.
NEVER LET YOUR AXE TOUCH THE GROUND.
Driving into the ground will nick it
& leaning it against the ground will rust it.
ALWAYS have a chopping block under the wood you are chopping or splitting
and when you are through using it for short period stick in the chopping
block or put it back in its sheath. On a hike carry the axe in its sheaf or
lashed to your pack and carry it around camp by holding the handle near the
heads with the edge down and out.
HOW TO BEST USE YOUR AXE:
WINTER USE:
THE AXE HEAD COULD SHATTER IN VERY COLD WEATHER: YOU MUST WARM UP THE
AXE HEAD ON A SMALL FIRE FOR A LITTLE WHILE BEFORE USING IT. THIS IS A
SERIOUS WARNING if it is real cold the axe will shatter like glass, so warm
it up over a fire, or in hot water or even between your legs before using
it.
A) NEVER work on soft earth directly. You risk having the axe hit the
ground & dulling the edge.
B) NEVER use a rock or piece of steel as leaning post for cutting.
C) NEVER hold the wood with the hand or the foot on the side where the axe
can slip giving very serious injury.
D) One old woodsman method to cut or split a log is to hit the log on its
head then twisting around the axe and the piece of wood you then hit the
striking leaning post with the axe head, this will split the log in no time.
TO REMOVE BRANCHES: ["Limbing"]
Start at the butt of the log and work toward the top, cutting on the
underside of the branches (Figure
88). Always limb from the opposite side of the log with the log
separating you from the ax. Limbing is a dangerous operation because of the chance of glancing blows (Figure
89) when the ax does not dig into the wood.
| Figure
88--Cut the underside of the branch when lopping branches |
Figure 89--Guidelines for limbing | Figure 90--Cutting off a large limb. |
 |
 |
 |
You need to pay attention to branches that
are under compression, those that bear the weight of the log. When the limb
is cut, the limb may spring free, striking you. The log can also roll.
Limbing is like other chopping in most ways. The same grips on the ax handle
are used and the swing is the same. Much of the ax work, however, is
performed in constricted, awkward positions. Some branches are large, others
small. You need good judgment to place the right amount of force behind each
swing of the ax.
The danger of accidents from an ax that has
been deflected by branches is much greater than with clear chopping. One
important precaution is to clear interfering branches before attempting to
chop a large limb. If the log is so large that you cannot reach over it to
limb, chop the top branches off first. Stand on top of the tree trunk to
chop the side branches. Cut each limb flush with the trunk; leave no stobs
or pig ears.
The inexperienced chopper should do very
little limbing while standing on the log. Experienced choppers with sure
control of the ax will be able to work safely in the more hazardous
positions.
Splitting:
The wood to be split is cut into stove
lengths that can be anywhere from 12 to 24 inches long. Stand the wood on
end, either on the ground or on a chopping block, if the wood has been cut
straight with a chain saw or crosscut saw. If the ends are uneven, the wood
needs to be placed in a crotch of a downed tree to hold it upright (Figure
93).
You should
have a designated splitting ax. Its blade should have a much steeper
angle than a felling and bucking ax. Take advantage of existing
cracks or checks in the wood to help direct your first blow, because
the first split is generally the most difficult. Swing straight down
toward the top of the block. Use your body weight, with your knees
snapping into position just as you hit the block of wood. Give the
ax handle a slight twist just as the bit hits the block (Figure
94). This throws the block of wood apart and prevents the ax
from sticking. The real secret of splitting wood with an ax is in
this little twist right at the end of the stroke. On a knotty,
gnarly block of wood you'll need to start your split from the
outside edges and slab off the sides. Inevitably, your ax will
become stuck in the block you are trying to split. The best way to
remove it without damaging the ax is to rap the end of the handle
sharply downward with the palm of your hand without holding the
handle.
 Figure 93--Safe and unsafe techniques for splitting wood |
 Figure 94--Twist the
ax head as it enters the wood to |
On a knotty, gnarly block of wood you'll need to start your
split from the outside edges and slab off the sides. Inevitably, your ax
will become stuck in the block you are trying to split. The best way to
remove it without damaging the ax is to rap the end of the handle sharply
downward with the palm of your hand without holding the handle.
BEFORE USING AN AXE ALWAYS MAKE THE
FOLLOWING SAFETY CHECKS:
1) ALWAYS CHECK HEAD FOR TIGHTNESS OF
HANDLE:
If it is loose either drive the wedge further home or make a new wedge
using hard wood. Soaking the head is another method but it is not
recommended for winter as ice may form on the handle and inside the head
allowing the head to slide off and cause possible injury.
2) ALWAYS CHECK FOR SHARPNESS:
A dull axe can be DANGEROUS for 2 reasons. First it will not bite
properly and will tend to glance off the wood being cut. Secondly when blunt
it IS NECESSARY to use more force which usually means a sacrifice of
control.
3) Check that the handle is not cracked or
split.
A serious cut or sliver might be received
4) When carrying an axe BE SURE that the
sharp edge is held AWAY from the body:
... so that in the event of a fall there will then be less chance of
injury.
CHECKING OUT AXES:
If you are going to be camping where an axe is needed, select one with
care. The handle, preferably of hickory, should be straight-grained, with
the grain running parallel to the blade, not diagonally against it. As with
any other piece of wood needing structural integrity, AVOID cracks,
knotholes, and other deformities. Also AVOID wood with a grain of sharply
contrasting colors; even small streaks may mean a weak handle. Because of
this, although axes painted along the shoulder and top of the head are more
visible, this is a safety feature you should apply yourself if you want it.
Quite often a painted handle has a fault to hide. Check to MAKE SURE the axe
is well hung. This can mean one of two things, depending on whom you talk
to. Either that the handle is straight, which you can check by sighting down
from one end of the handle towards the head. Or that when the axe is held
bit and knob against a flat surface, the bit touches at about the midpoint.
Both factors are important. But the first is more so, since chopping with a
crooked handle is like shooting with a bowed gun barrel---dangerous. The
handle should feel comfortable in your hands when you swing it. A rule of
thumb for length is that when you are standing erect, holding the axe in one
hand, head down, & letting swing back and forth across the floor without
bending your arm, the blade should just miss the floor.
CHOPPING WOOD:
Like all real skills, chopping with an axe is
considerably more difficult than it appears when done by an expert. That
doesn't mean you can't do it. It just means that unless you chop wood on a
regular basis, you should MAKE SURE you're extra careful when you do. When
you're splitting wood the only task you'll use the axe for, since cutting
down trees is verboten--stand with your legs spread but comfortable. Check
to MAKE SURE the axe head is still firmly attached to the handle. Check too
that there are no overhead branches or other obstructions including people
anywhere near the axes arc as you swing it from behind, above your head, and
down to its target on the chopping block. Children are best taught to keep
their distance from the chopping block routinely. Chips fly. Place the log
you're going to split on end so one of its flat surfaces will be at right
angles to the descending axe blade. NEVER put a round log on the block
lengthwise and attempt to split it that way. If you weren't to hit it just
right, the axe would glance off and you could be in real trouble. Bring the
axe over your head from behind your shoulders your near hand down towards
the fawn's foot as well when the axe arches overhead. As you bring the axe
forward & down for the chop, REMEMBER it's the momentum of the axe head that
does the work. When the head is just about to hit the log, your arms are
loose, merely to follow the arc of the swing. Don't lean into the blow. It
doesn't add any efficiency to the chop. All it does is add a lot of wearing
vibration through your arms. Keep your eye on the log, not the axe head,
when you're chopping. Don't aim dead centre. Splitting is easier if you hit
closer to the near edge. Don't aim for the far edge either. If, instead of
the blade, the handle should strike the log, it will snap. To tackle a thick
log, dig the axe in toward the edge, turn the log and take a crack at the
opposite edge, aiming so the two cracks will eventually meet. Then keep
digging in closer to the centre until the cracks are one. On a big log the
first split is ALWAYS the hardest. Once you've broken the log it becomes
much easier.
SAWS FROM JACK TO BUCK:
For all the axe's woodiness, I usually take along with me only a saw. A
lightweight folding saw will handle almost all the ground and squaw wood you
find. Branches, even ones three inches in diameter, need not really be split
in order to burn in a hot fire, and you're not going to find anything much
larger. Most of these branches can simply be broken by hand or by a hefty
wood stomp. But where the wood is still quite springy, a lightweight saw
simplifies the job of reducing whole branches to convenient fire lengths. It
also means less wood burned, since you won't be tossing in four-foot-long
pieces that wouldn't break easily. As a last thought, a saw is not dangerous
even in inexperienced hands. The lightest and least bulky saw made is a
quarter-ounce twisted toothed wire with finger rings at each end. An item
for the emergency kit perhaps. Outside of that, it is simply too
inefficient. For cutting any considerable amount of wood, it would be
quicker to convince some local beavers to give you a hand. The next size up
is the handy jacksaw, its 8 to 15 inches blade folding into a wooden or
high-impact plastic handle in the fashion of a pocket-knife. Get one with at
least a 10 inch blade or the strokes will be too short to be effective. It's
hard to beat a bucksaw. Although it will weigh over two pounds, a folding
version is the best thing to have along if you expect to do considerable
sawing. Unlike the triangularly framed version, a bucksaw permits
full-stroke cutting of up to 12-inch diameter logs without frame
interference. It also permits team sawing, which cuts the work more than in
half.
SAWING:
If you look at a saw blade you'll see that the teeth are angled out from
the blade itself. This is the set of the teeth. Teeth lose their set when
squeezed or pinched in a log. So the only thing to watch for is that you
don't flatten the angle. If you do, your saw's efficiency will fall
drastically. Let the log extend over whatever you're bracing it across,
another log, for instance, then saw beyond this point. The weight of the
overhanging part of the log will widen the cut the deeper you go, keeping
the blade from pinching. You don't have to bear down on the saw when you're
cutting. In fact you shouldn't, since this will also tend to make it bind
and lose its set. Just pull and push, back and forth. With a bucksaw two
people set to on the job, each one pulling in turn towards his own
direction. This is by far the simplest way, since pulling a saw through wood
is much easier than pushing it.
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7. Camp Activities & Projects
c. Camp Cookery
THE OVEN:
On any long trip except a backpacking one, we take a reflector oven.
Ours weighs less than three pounds and supplies a seemingly endless quantity
of biscuits, trail pies, and even bread. Some of the imported or
ethnic-bakery pumpernickel and dark whole grain breads will easily last two
weeks on the trail.
| HIGH ALTITUDE
COOKING: Altitude (feet) Increase in Cooking Time 3,000 20% 4,000 30% 5,000 40% 6,000 50% 7,000 70% 8,000 90% Over 9,000 feet a pressure cooker saves a great deal of time. |
HIGH
ALTITUDE BAKING: Altitude (feet)% Less Baking Powder 3,000 10% 6,000 25% 10,000 30%* * Add one extra egg if eggs are called for in recipe. |
ICEBOX GALLEY &
WINTER COOKING:
Cooking in an icebox or winter cooking. Put a piece of Ensolite
underneath the stove if it's a pressurized type. The cold ground will
otherwise cut down its efficiency considerably. Also you'll need a lot more
fuel than for a comparable summer trip. Your stove will be working much
harder and longer not only in cooking but in melting snow. (It takes a
bushel of snow to make a pint of water.) and add almost 15 min. to that as
well. REMEMBER that melting ice is quicker than snow to get water, so if
there is any ice around, reach for it. Dehydrated and freeze dried foods are
a real boon here since they can't freeze. Winter campers tend to drink less
than they should. When you are not perspiring much because of cold weather,
the purification function of your kidneys becomes primary and you should
drink more, rather than less. So take along lots of soup and hot drink
mixes. HOT LIQUIDS WILL WARM YOU UP BETTER THAN HOT FOOD, THERE IS MORE HEAT
IN THEM. (Leave a cup of soup and a cup of rice standing sometime & see
which one stays warm longer.)
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7. Camp Activities & Projects
d. Recreational Activities
Back to Top
7. Camp Activities & Projects
e. Security Procedures
SAFE-KEEPING THE TOOLS AROUND CAMP:
Probably more people are injured by carelessly stored tools than by
using them. Don't lay your saw down on the ground or prop it next to the
chopping block when you are through cutting wood. Hang it on a small branch
stump protruding from a handy tree & if you're camping with kids, hang it
high enough so they can't reach it. Any loose rope that is not in use or
packed away should also be coiled and hung. Tripping over it with a hot pot
of stew in your hands is no way to wash your face. Although it looks nice
and woodsy to leave your axe or sheath knife stuck in a chopping block or
log, sheath it. Put the axe safely away in your tent, the knife in your
pocket. Not only is the habit an accident preventative, but it's better for
the tools. Dew in the morning will rust your blade. If an axe sits out in
the sun all day, the handle will tend to warp & dry out so the head loosens.
If you are in porcupine country, you may wake up some morning and find half
your axe handle chewed into toothpicks. It's not that porcupines are
particularly fond of axe handles, or even in need of toothpicks. They crave
salt. And putting any kind of work behind your wood chopping will build up
sweat, turning the axe handle into a tasty porcupine pretzel stick.
Back to Top
8.
Field Expedient Equipment
a. Camp Furniture
NEVER SIT ON DAMP GROUND!
Use something, even if it is only a log. If there is no ready-made seat
available, lash together a couple of low A-frame support and rest another
bough across them. Make a simple box frame with cross-members linking legs
from short lengths of wood.
TO MAKE A SEAT:
Weave vines or twine back and forth or sew on a piece of canvas or
plastic with thongs. Failing these, try a flat piece of wood or metal laid
across, or thin springy saplings lashed to the frame and interwoven.
CAMP CHAIR:
A comfy camp chair can be made in 10-15 min. and will give hours of
comfort. Select 2 stout forked sticks 4 feet long and 3 inches thick. The
forks MUST BE at wide angle and cut with the straighter of the 2 prongs
about 9 to 10 inches long and the other wide angled prong about 12 to 15
inches. Cut another stout forked stick about 4 feet in length and leave the
prongs of this sufficiently long to hold the 2 sticks you have cut before.
Across the seat portion of the chair lash straight sticks about an inch
thick & continue these up the back of the chair. On the seat portion they
MUST BE close together but on the back they can be spaced 2 or 3 inches
apart. There may be difficulties in finding 2 sticks with wide angled prongs
in which case you can make your chair by using 2 hooked stakes. The crotch
of the hook should be 8 inches above the end of the stick and the sticks
themselves should be about 3 feet 6 inches long. Two poles each about 5 feet
long are laid one each through the hooked portion of the sticks that have
their upper ends lashed together. These 2 poles are lashed together behind
the chair and a forked pole leading from the upper end where the hooked
stakes are lashed comes back to these 2 side poles and is lashed again. This
gives you the framework for your chair. A good bushman makes himself comfy
wherever he may be. The simple seat of course is either to roll up a log or
select a site where a fallen tree will serve you. Also you can use a few
stones to build up a platform and between these you can lay 2 or 3 poles for
your seat.
CAMP SEAT:
A very comfy fireside camp seat can be made by driving 2 short stakes
into the ground so that the forks are pointing outward that is away from the
opposite stake. The bottom of the forks should be from 8 to 10 inches above
the ground level. 2 back forked stakes about 3 feet 6 inches long are driven
into the ground 15 to 18 inches behind these 2 short stakes. These back
stakes should be driven in on a slight angle, leaning away from the 2
forward forks. The forks of the rear stakes should point outward. Both short
and long stakes should be not less than 2 inches thick and the fork at least
1 and half inch thick. The short stakes should be at a convenient distance
from the fireplace anything from 3 to 6 feet depending upon the size fire
you usually build. Cut 2 cross bars each about 3 inches thick and cut nicks
in these so they fit snugly in place in the forks & connect front & rear
forks. Length ways lay straight smooth sticks, 1 to 2 inches thick. These
MUST BE close together. Along the back that is to the tall stakes, lash
similar sticks from 2 to 3 inches apart. This makes an excellent fireside
camp seat and the comfort it gives well repays the 1/2 hour it took to
build.
10 MINUTE CAMP BED:
A sound night's rest is worth 10 min toil. Time spent in making a camp
bed that will keep you both comfy and warm are time well spent even for
Rambo. Cut 2 poles 6 to 7 inches thick & about 7 feet long. Lay these
parallel to each other 3 feet apart & to prevent them from rolling put pegs
at head and foot, driven well into the ground with about a foot of the peg
above the pole. Cut about 20 or 30 straight strong sticks 3 and half feet
long and lay these every 4 inches across the 2 poles. Now on top of these
cross sticks place 2 poles 3 to 4 inches thick and 7 feet long. They should
lie against the peg driven in to hold the 2 bed poles secure. At the head
end of the bed lay about 6 cross sticks on top of these last 2 poles.
Now cut green brushwood, fern or waste green
stuff such as sucker growth or weedy bushy material and put this so that the
main stalks are length ways along the bed. Pile it high between the top
poles and lying across the cross sticks. The resulting bed will be as
springy & comfy as any you have ever slept in your life.
CAMP MATTRESS OR STICK HAMMOCK:
The weft or long strands are set up as for weaving, but instead of warp
(cross strands) tufts of grass, fern or other material or sticks for a stick
hammock are passed between the weft. In weaving a camp mattress it is
advisable to put in a warp tie every second or third lift. This binds the
sides and prevents the outside weft strands spreading. Strands of sun dried
grass, loosely spun can be woven into a covering for a camp bed if you are
without blanket. When weaving for this purpose MAKE SURE that the warp
strands are pushed closely up to each other. Do not try and make a camp
blanket too heavy. It is far better to make 2 light grass covering than one
heavy one since it is a number of layers rather than extreme thickness of 1
layer which keeps you warm.
NET HAMMOCK:
Make a net about 75cm (2 1/2 ft) across and wider than your height. Use
a good strong twine or rope for the loop and bottom lines- double twine
would be a good idea. The ends have to carry your weight. Leave those ends
long enough to suspend the hammock by. Cut two spacer bard to keep the
hammock open. Notch the ends and slip the cords into the notches (*A). To
simplifying hanging the hammock you cold tie each pair of end lines to a
fixed loops such as a Bowline. Then fix one end with a round turn and two
half-hitches, the other with a quick release knot in case you ever need to
leave the hammock in a hurry if Caesar is at the door !
CAMP TABLE:
For the framework select 2 forked stakes at least 3 inches thick & 4 to
5 inches long. The length depends upon the soil and how far you will have to
drive the stakes into the ground to make them quite secure. The lower end of
each stake is sharpened and the head beveled. The first stake should be
driven well into the earth so that the lowest part of the crotch of the fork
is 3 feet above the ground. The prong of the fork should be pointing out
from the length you want your table say from 4 to 7 feet and drive in the
other stake with its prong also pointing outward that is away from the first
stake. This stake MUST also be driven the same depth into the ground as the
first stake. Cut 4 strong straight stakes 4 feet 6 to 5 feet in length and
at least 2 1/2 inches thick. Place these with one end in the crotch of the
forks and at right angles to the line of the forked stakes. Note where the
sticks cross each other in the forks and scarf out cuts in each so that the
2 will nest together in the crotch. These side poles carry the table poles
and the seat poles so they MUST seat securely in the forks.
On to these side poles and about 2 feet above
ground level 2 strong poles 2 inches thick are securely lashed. These poles
are for the table and later straight sticks are laced side by side across
these poles for the actual table top. 15 inches above the ground level 2
very strong poles 3 inches thick and 7 to 8 feet in length are lashed. These
lashings MUST BE very tight to make these 2 poles secure to the 2 side poles
and also to the forked stakes you first drove into the ground. These poles
serve both as a bracing to carry the seat.
Your table is now ready for finishing. Cut
short straight sticks for the top. You will need 8 sticks for every foot in
length of table top. The seat-sticks at least 3 to 4 inches thick are cut 1
foot longer than the length of the table. You will need at least 3 of these
seat sticks for each side. They are not lashed to the cross poles but
allowed to lie on them so that the distance of the seat from the table can
be adjusted by either pulling or pushing them in.
If the ground is soft or loose sand your
table will require bracing and this can be done simply by 2 diagonal braces
from the table level of each of the forked stakes to the foot of the other.
Where the bracing cross they should be lashed. An alternative is to cut 2
five foot forks of the stakes in the ground. Their own butts MUST BE firmly
seated on the ground & held from slipping by a stout peg driven well in the
ground. This type of structure is recommended for a portable table. When
securely lashed the whole table is EXTREMELY strong. A fly thrown over the
top bar can be used to give shade.
ANOTHER TYPE CAMP TABLE DRY COUNTRY:
It is simply to dig 2 trenches, 2 or 3 feet apart on their inside edges
and at least 10 to 12 inches deep. Only suitable when earth is clay or firm
enough to be dug in clean sods. Sods are used to give height to the seat.
STICK HAMMOCK:
A camp loom is set up and the hammock is woven using vines, twisted bark
fibbers, grass rope etc. for the weaving and sticks about 1 inch thick for
the cross parts. The hammock should be at least 3 feet wide by 7 feet long.
The end 2 spreaders should be 2 inches thick & from these short lengths of
rope are brought to the central rope by means of which the hammock is
suspended. Ropes from each of the 4 corners will also serve to suspend the
hammock. A grass mattress also woven on the camp loom makes an excellent
cover for the hammock.
Back to Top
8. Field Expedient Equipment
b. Making Tools &
Utensils
TOOLS:
Before humans discovered metals and learned to work them, tools were
made from stone-especially flint, obsidian, quartz, chertz and other glassy
rocks, bone and other natural objects. Stones can make efficient hammers,
alone or lashed on to a handle if a shape that can be easily secured. The
glassy stones can be knapped (chipped and flaked) to make a sharp edge; some
other kinds of stone, such as slate, can also produce a knife edge, though
they may not have the strength to be used for percussive blows. The best
start for a stone implement is a split cobble, perhaps from a stream bed, or
split by a blow from another smooth, hard pebble, so that a flat face is
produced. The blow should be at an angle of less than 90 degrees or the
shock will be absorbed within the pebble. Once the split is made, other
layers can be broken off. Flakes can be removed around the edge of the flat
face by hitting edge-on with another stone. Delicate work can be produced by
hitting and pressing with a softer tool such as deer's antler. If a flat
face is produced end-on blows can make thin blades. Making stone implements
is not a skill that can be quickly acquired and you may have to be very
persistent. Bones can be used as tools-antlers and horns make USEFUL digging
implements gougers and hammers. They can also be cut with stone tools or
ground with coarse stones. You may have the advantage over the prehistoric
tool-makers, whose skills you are copying, of having a knife or other metal
implement to help you to carve bone. Some woods, such as the Mulga tree of
Australia, used by the Aborigines for spears, are hard enough to make
effective blades for hunting and cutting.
STONE TOOLS:
One technique for producing an axe-head: First the stone is split and
the edges partly shaped. Then a platform is created on one side from which a
series of flakes can be struck vertically down. The final shaping can then
be done. Hit with a softer stones, and hit and press small flakes away with
a piece of antler or hard wood. It may take a lot of patience to acquire
tool making skills but even practice flakes may be USEFUL as scrapers, for
cutting edges & as arrowheads.
FITTING A STONE AXE-HEAD:
Select a hardwood handle. Tie a band of cord around it about 23cm (9in)
from one end. Split the end down as far as this band (use your knife and a
wedge or the piece of flint you have made for the axe-head). Insert the
stone axe-head and tie the end of the split to secure. This mounting will
split wood but will not be very effective for chopping it.
BONE TOOLS:
A shoulder blade provides a good shape for an effective saw. First it
should be split in half, then teeth can be cut along it with a knife. A
small bone scraper could also be made, the edge ground sharp. Ribs are good
bones for shaping into points.
BONE NEEDLE:
Choose a suitable bone or
flake of bone and sharpen to a point. Burn an eye with a piece of hot wire,
or lacking that, scrape with a knife point or piece of flint. DON'T heat the
knife in the fire.
LADDER:
Food collecting, shelter building, trap setting and a whole lot of other
task will be easier with a ladder. This one is easily made by lashing
cross-piece to two long poles. Because these are set an angle, not parallel,
the rungs will not be able to slip down.
BUSH LADDER:
Easily made. Select 2 long straight poles cut to equal length. Lash the
thin ends together. Spread the butts or thick ends so that they are about 2
1/2 to 3 feet apart. To these lash the rungs & MAKE CERTAIN that the
lashings are good and tight. Lashing the rungs is made easier if you lift
the butts on to a log or a couple of big stones. It will be easier to pass
the lashing material under the poles. MAKE SURE that the top end is narrower
than the bottom end, it is more solid that way.
SINGLE LADDER ROPE:
Cut as many hard wood chocks 1 1/2 to 2 inches thick as you require for
you ladder. These are placed every 15 to 18 inches apart. The chocks should
be about 4 inches across and can be cut from either square or round timber.
Bore a hole through the center of each chock. This hole should not be more
than 1/8 inch larger than the diameter of the rope. Thread the rope through
the holes in the chocks and then starting at one end open the strand of the
rope and slip in a 1/2 inch thick hard wood peg about 3 inches long. Bind
the rope below the peg. Slide the chock down and measure off the distance to
the next step.
EMERGENCY LAMP: A CANDLE HOLDER FROM A
BOTTLE:
Open flame is DANGEROUS in a tent, so cut off the base of a clear glass
bottle. A very easy way to cut the glass cleanly is to heat a piece of thin
wire to red hot. Bend this around the bottle where you want to cut it
alternatively tie a piece of grease-soaked string round the bottle and burn
it. Then when the hot wire or burning string is around the bottle, immerse
the bottle in cold water. The glass will break off evenly at the place where
the wire or string encircled it.
CAMP BROOM:
A bundle of green straight sticks each not much thicker than a match
stick is collected and bound tightly to a central handle, the business end
of the broom is then trimmed off.
BUSH HOE: (EFFICIENT!)
Select a dead or half dead branch of hard wood, 4 to 6 inches thick with
a side branch from 5 to 6 feet long & 1 inch & half thick coming off it at a
fairly wide angle. Trim the side branch so that it's smooth. With your
machete trim the main branch so that it is a hook to the handle part. See
that it is sharpened to a chisel edge. This bush hoe is quite an efficient
digging tool particularly if the digging end is fire hardened.
Back to Top
8. Field Expedient Equipment
c. Ropemaking
ROPE MAKING:
Almost any natural fibrous material can be spun into good serviceable
rope or cord and many material which have a length of 12 to 24 inches or
more can be braided or plaited. Ropes of up to 3 and 3 inches diameter can
be laid by four people & breaking strains from bush made rope of 1 inch
diameter range from 100 to as high as 2,000 or 3,000 lbs.
BREAKING STRAINS:
Taking a three lay rope of 1 inch diameter as standard the following
table of breaking strains may serve to give a fair idea of general strengths
of various materials. For safety sake ALWAYS regard the lowest figure as the
breaking strain unless you know otherwise.
Green grass= 100 to 250 lbs. / Bark fiber=
500 to 1,500 lbs.
Palm fiber = 650 to 2,000 lbs. Sedges= 2,000 to 2,500 lbs.
Monkey ropes (liana)= 560 to 700 lbs.
Lawyer vine (calamus)*= 1/2 inch diam = 1,200 lbs.
Double the diameter quadruple the breaking
strain. Halve the diameter & you reduce the breaking strains to 1 fourth.
(1/4).
PRINCIPLE OF ROPE MAKING MATERIALS:
To discover whether a material is suitable for rope making it MUST HAVE
4 qualities: It MUST BE reasonably long in the fiber. It MUST HAVE strength.
MUST BE pliable and MUST HAVE grip so that the fibers will bite onto one
another.
3 SIMPLE TESTS:
There are 3 simple tests to find if any material is suitable; First pull
on a length of the material to test it for strength. The second test via
strength is to twist it between the fingers and roll the fibers together; if
it will stand this and not snap apart tie a thumb knot in it and gently
tighten the knot. If the material does not cut upon itself but allow the
knot to be pulled taut then it is a suitable for rope making providing that
the material will bite together and is not slippery or smooth. You will find
these qualities in all sorts of plants in ground vines, in most of the
longer grasses, in some of the water reeds and rushes, in the inner barks of
many trees and shrubs and in the long hair or wool of many animals. Some
green freshly gathered materials may be stiff or unyielding. When this is
the case try passing it through hot flames for a few moments. The heat
treatment should cause the sap to burst through some of the cell structure
and the material thus becomes pliable.
Fibers for rope making may be obtained from
many sources; Surface roots of many shrubs and trees have strong fibrous
bark. Dead Inner bark of fallen branches of some species of trees and in the
new growth of many trees such as willows. In the fibrous material of many
water and swamp growing plants and rushes. In many species of grass and in
many weeds (pot?!?). In some sea weeds. In fibrous material from leaves,
stalks and trunks of many palms & in many fibrous leaved plants such as the
aloes*.
GATHERING AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS:
In some plants there may be a high content of vegetable gum and this can
often be removed by soaking in water or by boiling or again by drying the
material and teasing it into thin strips. Some of the materials have to be
used green if any strength is required. The material that should be green
include the sedges* water rushes* and should be cut NEVER pulled. Cutting
above ground is harvesting but pulling up the plant= destruction. It is
advisable no to denude an area entirely but to work over a wide area
location and harvest the most suitable material leaving some for seeding and
further growth.
For the gathering of sedges and grasses be
particularly careful therefore to harvest the material that is to cut what
you require above the ground level and take only from the biggest clumps. By
doing this you are not destroying the plant but rather aiding the natural
growth since you are truly pruning. It is easiest method. Many of the strong
leafed plants are deeply rooted and you can not simply pull a leaf off them.
Palm fiber in tropical and sub tropical area
is harvested. You will find it at the junction of the leaf and the palm
trunk or
lying on the ground beneath many palms. Palm
fiber is natural for making ropes and cord. Fibrous matter from the inner
bark of trees and shrubs is generally more easily used if the plants is dead
or half dead. Much of the natural gum will have dried up and when the
material is being teased prior to spinning the gum or resin will fall out in
fine powder.
There may be occasions when you will have to
use the bark of green shrubs but AVOID this unless it is ABSOLUTELY
ESSENTIAL and cut only a branch here and there. NEVER cut a complete tree
just because you want the bark for a length of rope.
TO MAKE A ROPE BY SPINNING WITH THE
FINGERS:
Use any material with long strong threads or fibers which you have
previously tested for strength and pliability. Gather the fibers into
loosely held strands of even thickness. Each of these strands is twisted
clockwise. The twist will hold the fibers together. The strand should be
from 1/8 inch downwards for a rough and ready rule, there should be 15 to 20
fibers to a strand. 2, 3 or 4 of these strands are later twisted together
and this twisting together or laying is done with an anti-clockwise twist
while at the same time the separate strands which have not yet been laid up
are twisted clockwise. Each strand MUST BE of equal twist and thickness. The
person who twists the strands together is called the layer and he MUST see
that the twisting is even. That the strands are uniform and that the tension
on each strand is equal. In laying he MUST watch that each of the strand is
evenly laid up that is that 1 strand does not twist around the other two. (A
thing you'll find happening the first time you try to lay up.)
When spinning fine cords for fishing lines,
snares etc. considerable care MUST BE taken to keep the strands uniform and
the lay even. Fine thin cords of nor more than one thirty second of an inch
thickness can be spun with the fingers and they are capable of taking a
breaking strain of 20 to 30 lbs or more. Normally 2 or more people are
required to spin and lay up the strands for a cord. Yet many natives when
spinning cord do so unaided, twisting the material by running the flat of
the hand along the thigh with the fibrous material between hand and thigh
and with the free hand they feed in fiber for the next spin. By this means
one person can make long length of single strands. This method of making
cord or rope with the fingers is slow if any considerable length of cord is
required.
A more simple and easy way to rapidly make
lengths of rope of 50 to 100 yards or more in length is to make a rope walk
and set up multiple spinners in the form of cranks. See photo * 259b. In a
rope walk, each feeder holds the material under one arm and with one free
hand feeds in into the strand which is being spun by the crank. The other
hand lightly hold the fibers together till they are spun. As the slightly
spun strands are increased in length they MUST BE supported on crossbars.
DON'T let them lie on the ground. You can spin strand of 20 to 100 yards
before laying up. Do not spin the material in too thickly. Thick strands do
not help strength in any way rather they tend to make a weaker rope.
LAYING THE STRANDS:
The strands lie on the crossbars as they are spun. When the strands have
been spun to the required length which should be more than about a 100 feet
they are joined together by being held at the far end. They are then ready
for laying together. The turner who is facing the cranks twists the ends
together anti-clockwise at the same time keeping his full weight on the rope
end which is being laid up. The layer advances placing the strands side by
side as they turn. Laying up is very fast when the layer is experienced. He
quickly gets the feeling of the work. It is important to learn to feed the
material evenly, and lay up slowly thereby getting a smooth even rope. Do
not try to rush the rope making. If you do you will have uneven, badly spun
strands and ugly lays and poor rope. Speed in rope making only comes with
practice. At first it will take a team of 3 or 4 up to 2 or more hours to
make a 50 yard length of rope of 3 lays, each of 3 strands. That is 9
strands for a rope with a finished diameter of about 1 inch. With practice
the same 3 or 4 people will make the same rope in 15 to 20 minutes. These
times do not include the time for gathering the material. In feeding the
free ends of the strands twist in the loose material fed in by the feeder.
The feeder MUST move backwards at a speed governed by the rate at which he
feeds. As the feeder moves backwards he MUST keep a slight tension on the
strands.
MAKING ROPE WITH A SINGLE SPINNER:
Two people can make a rope using a single crank. A portion of the
material is fastened to the eye of the crank as with the multiple crank and
the feeder holding the free end of this trend against the bundle of loose
material under his arm feeds in, walking backwards. Supporting crossbars as
used in ropewalk are required when a length of more than 20 or 30 feet is
being spun.
FEEDING:
If the feeder is holding material under his left arm, his right hand is
engaged in continuously pulling material forward to his left hand which
feeds it into the turning strand. These actions done together as the feeder
walks backwards govern the thickness of the strands. ( His left hand lightly
closed over the loose turning material MUST feel the fibers binding or
twisting together.)
THICKNESS OF STRANDS:
Equal thickness for each of the strands throughout their length & equal
twist are important. The thickness should not be greater than IS NECESSARY
with the material being used. For grass rope the strand should not be more
than 1/4 inch in diameter for coarse bark or palm not more than 1/8 to 3/16
and for fine bark or hair or sisal fiber not more than 1/8 inch. For cords
the strand should be NO MORE THAN 1/16 inch diameter. Fine cords cannot be
made from grass unless the fibers are separated by beating out and combing.
The correct amount of twist is when the material is hard that is the twist
is tight.
FAULTS COMMON WITH BEGINNERS:
There is a tendency with the beginner to feed unevenly. This wispy
sections of strand are followed by thick husky portions. Such feeding is
useless. Rope made from such strands will break off with less than 1/4 of
the possible strain from the material. The beginner is wise to twist and
feed slowly and to make regular even strands rather than rush the job and
try & make the strand quickly. Speed with uniformity of twist and thickness
come only with practice. In a short time when you have the feel of feeding
you will find you can feed at the rate of from 30 to 60 feet/min. Thick
strands do NOT help. IT IS USELESS TO TRY AND SPIN A ROPE FROM STRANDS AN
INCH OR MORE IN THICKNESS. Such a rope will break with less than half the
potential strain of the material. Spinning thick strands does not save time
in rope making.
LIANA, VINES & CANES:
Liana and ground vines are natural ropes and grow in sub-tropical
regions scrub and jungle. Many are of great strength and USEFUL for
bridging, tree climbing etc. The smaller ground vines when plaited give
great strength and flexibility. Canes and stalks of palms provide excellent
material if used properly. Only the outer skin is tough and strong and this
skin will split off easily if you bend the main stalk away from the skin.
This principle applies to the splitting of layer cane (calamus*), all the
palm leaf stalks and all green material. If the split start to run off, you
MUST BEND the material away from the thin side & then it will gradually gain
in size and come back to an even thickness with the other split side.
BARK FIBERS:
The fibers in many barks which a suitable for rope making are close to
the innermost layer. This the bark next to the sap wood. When seeking
suitable barks of green timber, cut a small section about 3 inches long and
an inch wide. Cut this portion right from the wood to the outer skin of the
bark. Peel this specimen and test the different layers. Green bark fibers
are generally difficult to spin because of the gum and it is better to
search around for wind fallen dead branches. And to try the inner bark of
these. The gum will probably have leached out and the fibers separate very
easily. Many shrubs have excellent bark fiber and here it is advisable to
cut the end of branch and peel of a strip of bark for testing. Thin barks
from green shrubs are sometime difficult to spin into fine cord and it is
then easier to use the #lariat plait# for small cords. Where IS NECESSARY to
use green bark fiber for rope spinning if time permits you will find that
the gum will generally wash out when the bark is teased and soaked in water
for a day or so. After removing from the water allow the bark strips to
partly dry out before shredding and teasing into fiber.
PLAITING:
One many may need a considerable length of rope and if he has no
assistance to help him spin his material. One can often find reasonably long
material (1 to 3 feet or more) and using this material he can plait or braid
and so make a suitable rope. The usual 3 plait makes a flat rope and while
quite good, has not the finish or shape nor is it as tight as the 4 or
#lariat plait#. On other occasion it may be necessary to plait broad bands
for belts or for shoulder straps. A general rule for all plaits is to work
form the outside in to the center.
3 PLAIT:
Take the right hand strand and pass it over the strand to the left. Then
take the left hand strand and pass it over the strand to the right and
repeat alternatively from left to right.
FLAT 4 PLAIT:
Lay the 4 strand side by side. The right hand strand and lay it over the
strand to the left. Now take the outside left hand strand and lay it under
the next strand to itself and over what was the first strand. Now take what
is now the outside right hand strand and lay it over the first strand to its
left. *Take the outside left strand and put it under and over the next 2
strands respectively moving toward the right. Thereafter your right hand
strand goes over one strand to the left and your left hand strand under and
over to the right.
BROAD PLAIT:
To start, take 6 or 7 or more strands and hold them flat together. Take
a stand in the center and pass it over the next strand to the left. Take the
second strand in the center to the left and pass it towards the right over
the strand you first took so that it points toward the right over the strand
you first took so that it points towards the right. Now take the next strand
to the first one & weave it under and over. Weave the next strands from left
and right alternatively towards the center. The finishing plait should be
tight and close it.
ROUND OR LARIAT PLAIT: 4 STRANDS:
1) Lay the 4 strands together side by side as
in fig 1 and cross the right hand center strand over and then around the
left hand strand.
2) Take the left hand outside strand & pass it over the 2 crossed strands
and then under the right hand one of the 2 so that it is pointing towards
the left.
3) Take the free right hand strand and pass it over the 2 twisted strands to
the left & completely round the left hand one of the 2.
4) Repeat this with the outside left hand strand.
5) repeat with the right hand strand.
CAUTION: ALWAYS TEST IT.
Prior to trusting your life to a bush made
rope, ALWAYS TEST IT. Use your mother in law or this lousy travel agent. Tie
one end to a tree and put 3 or 4 fellows onto the other end, hang your
mother in law, if it works then it is good (don't do this). Have them take
the strain gently until finally all their weight is on the rope. If they can
not break it then is it is safe for one man at time to use it to climb or
descend a cliff face. When climbing up a bush made rope ALWAYS use the foot
lock *p261 & when descending. NEVER slide down the rope. Climb down using
the same foot lock to AVOID burns. The foot lock offers a measure of safety
and the climber is so secure that he can actually stand on the rope and rest
without his body weight being carried entirely on his arms. To prove this,
use the foot lock and clasp the rope to your body with your arms. You will
find that you are standing on the rope and quite secure.
ROPE MAKING: TIP 2
Vines, grasses, rushes, bark, palms and animal hairs can all be used to
make rope or line. The tendons from animals legs also make good strings, but
they tend to dry hard (very USEFUL for binding on arrow and spear heads).
The stems of nettles make first class ropes and those of Honeysuckle can be
twisted together to make light lashing. The stronger the fiber, the stronger
the rope. Some stiff fibers can be made flexible by steaming or by warming.
While pliable vines and other long plants stems can often be used, as they
are, for short term purposes, they may become brittle as they dry out. A
rope made from plant fibers twisted (spun) or plaited together will be more
durable.
SOURCES OF FIBERS:
NETTLES: (URTICA DIOICA)
They are an excellent source of fibers but require preparation. Choose
the oldest available plants and those with the longest stems. Soak them in
water for 24 hours, then lay them on the ground and pound them with a smooth
stone. This will shred the outer surface exposing the fibrous centre. Tease
and comb to remove the fleshy matter. Hang to dry. When dry, remove and
discard the outer layer. (Spin) fibers into long threads. Plaiting or
twisting together to make as strong rope.
PALMS:
Usually provide a good fiber. Leaves, trunks and stalks can all be used.
The husk of coconut is used commercially to make ropes and matting.
DOGBANE:
Stems also provide good fibers, with which it is easy to work.
BARKS:
Willow bark especially produces very good fiber. Use the new growth from
young trees. The dead inner bark of fallen trees and tree branches should
not be overlooked. But if the tree has been down too long it may have
decayed too much, so test it for strength.
ROOTS:
The surface roots of many trees make good lashings. Those that run just
under, or even on the surface are often pliable and strong. The roots of the
Spruce are very strong. The Indians of North America used them to sew Birch
bark together to make canoes.
LEAVES:
Plants such as those of the Lily family, especially Aloes have very
fibrous leaves. Test by tearing one apart. If it separates into stringy
layers it can provide fibers to make into ropes. Soak to remove the fleshy
parts.
RUSHES, SEDGES & GRASSES:
Should be used when still green. Pick the longest specimens available.
ANIMAL TENDONS:
Are USEFUL for tying one thing to another. THEY MUST BE USED WET.
SPLITTING CANES:
BAMBOO, RATTAN AND OTHER TYPES OF CANES, VINES AND BARK ALL need to be
split to be used for any kind of rope making. If you try to pull away thin
strips, these tend to run away to nothing. To AVOID this problem pull on the
thick part to separate it from the thin. It saves both time and ENERGY.
TESTING FIBERS:
Tie 2 lengths together using an overhand knot. Try pulling it apart,
using a reasonable amount of strength. If it snaps the fiber is too brittle.
If it is too smooth, it will slip apart. Suitable fiber will "Bite ME BABY!"
and hold together well.
PLAITING ROPE:
An easy method for the less experienced is to twist and plait strands.
If you make 3 thin plaits, these can be plaited together again for thicker,
stronger rope. If you are lengthening the strands as you plait, stagger the
places at which you feed in new fibers. Take a bundle of fibers, tie the
ends together, anchor it firmly and split into 3 separates strands (*a)
Bring the left strand into the center(*b) then the right over it (*c). Then
bring what is now the left strand to the center(*d) & so on (*e-f) Keep
twisting the strands & keep the plaiting as tight and even as you can make
it.
SPINNING A ROPE:
Twist fibers together (shown here clockwise, but what is important is to
keep to the same direction). Feed in lengths of new fibers as you go so that
their ends are staggered. When you have produced 3 lengths of fiber, anchor
all 3 at one end and continue to twist each of them until quite tight.
Temporarily fastening a toggle to the end of each will make twisting easier.
Now draw all 3 strands together and twist all three clockwise - the opposite
direction. Continue to add and twist until you have produced the amount of
rope you needed. You will need to secure a completed section in a cleft
stick to keep it tight as you work. Wrap the rope around a tree trunk to
keep the working length short. To make a thicker rope repeat the process
with 3 ropes you have already made or plait 3 simple ropes together.
REMEMBER:
When making a rope try to keep the thickness of the strands equal and
even along their lengths. It is where a lay has a thin section that the rope
is most likely to break.
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8. Field Expedient Equipment
d. Weaving
CAMP LOOM:
Two stout forked stakes about 2 inches thick are cut and driven into the
ground with their lower prongs 3 feet above the ground and facing away from
the direction you wish to work. The distance between the stakes should be at
least 6 inches wider than the widest article you want to weave. Across the
forks a cross bar about one inch thick is laid. It is advisable to trim this
cross bar of twigs and roughness and it should be fairly strong. 8 or 9 feet
from the cross bar and on the side farthest from the prongs a row of
straight smooth stakes each about 4 feet long is driven into the ground so
that there are about 2 inches between the centers of the stakes. These
stakes should be trimmed of any side twigs or roughness. A weaving bar a few
inches longer than the width of the row of stakes is cut and laid on the
ground parallel and about 6 inches in front of this row of stakes. Your camp
loom is now ready to be set up for a weaving.
An alternative to the row of stakes & a
considerable improvement if a situation is available is to select a site
where 2 trees are at a convenient distance apart. At ground level and about
7 feet above the ground, 2 stout cross bars, 2 inches thick are lashed to
the tree trunks and to these crossbars a series of smooth vertical sticks
are lashed at the top & bottom. These sticks are about 2 inches apart at
centers.
TO WEAVE ON CAMP LOOM:
Lengths of the weaving material are tied to the stakes are shown brought
back over the crossbars & then forward & between the stakes & then tied to
the weaving bar in front of the row of stakes (this is the "weft" of your
weaving). A ball of material is tied to the outside strand and then passed
between the 2 rows of strands (this is the warp) with the weaving bar lying
on the ground. The weaving bar is lifted above the weft and the ball
returned again between the weft threads. Repeat by alternatively lifting and
lowering the weaving bar.
WEAVING A CAMP HAMMOCK:
Normally a hammock is made by using the netting tie and netting needle,
but a serviceable hammock can be woven on the camp loom from bush materials.
The ball of warp is passed around the weft threads to from an overhand knot
on the lower lay of the weft and these knots pulled tights make the weaving
secure.
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8. Field Expedient Equipment
e. Defensive Structures
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9. Woodsmanship
a. Foraging
FOOD FROM THE WILDERNESS:
One of the joys of camping is going out in the morning to pick
blueberries for the breakfast pancakes, fresh mushrooms to go with lunch, or
some of the other gifts of nature discussed further on. Don't count on the
wilderness feeding you there are too many of us for that now. But ALWAYS
keep your eyes open. Often you'll stumble across unexpected delights.
EDIBLE PLANTS:
There are so many that it would take 2 more books just on the subject.
We have included the most common in the world. There are several good books
guide to edible plants which you can add to your list of items to bring
along while camping. Among some good books are the Euell Gibbon's such as
Stalking the Wild Asparagus & Stalking the Healthful Herbs by far the most
enjoyable in the field. One more note about the mushroom repeated time and
time again. Know what you eat. MUSHROOM ARE OFTEN DEADLY AND HAVE VERY
LITTLE FOOD VALUE.
CRAYFISH:
This is one more of the wilderness delicacy often used only as baits and
yet is often tastier than the fish you may or may not catch. Boiled up whole
with salt, a bit of onion (wild) & a pinch of sugar will shame the best
lobster. Campers with kids should put them on the job of catching them by
hand thus a guarantee of an afternoon peace with dinner supplied to boot.
They will see them darting backwards in slow streams and by the rocky edges
of lakes. Kids will have a great time wadding around in water after the
crayfish and this pastime will absorb and delight them while parents watch
from shore in case of accidents. (Kids should be taught to swim as soon as
possible.)
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9. Woodsmanship
b. Hunting
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9. Woodsmanship
c. Fishing
FISHING:
For hand line get small hooks with long shanks. They're easier to remove
from the fish. A # 6,8 or 10 hook is fine for pan-fish. If you're going
bottom fish such as catfish and carp which live in turbulent and muddy
waters skip the float and use a lead sinker instead. Use a strong line say
ten pounds or better you might catch a bigger fish then you think (Whale!)
The fish will nibble, do not yank it right away, be patient, then bingo go
for it.
WHERE THE FISH ARE:
Think fish!? The more you know about a fish's habit the more likely you
are to catch it. Most of the lakes are empty, the reason is there's no food
around, it's too hot, current too swift, too muddy, etc. Like people they
have special places and bars they hang around. Fish are found where there's
a bit of variety and scenery in their underwater domain. It's where there
are more insects and smaller freshwater life and where the fish can find
shelter from predators, weed beds, lily pads on hot days, deep cool holes to
loll in waiting for a good meal to fall their way. Places where streams
enter lakes, washing oxygen & food for them, coves, inlets and other
irregularities in the shoreline. When it comes down to rivers the preference
is for downstream from boulders, where the swimming is easy and around
undercuts, waterfalls and backwaters. There are seasonal variations as well.
The fish are in shallower water during spring and fall. Come Summer heat or
Winter cold they search out the more even temperature of deep water. In both
hot and cold weathers they are semi-dormant and sluggish. The cycle of the
day and night also affects the fish. They'll be in shallower shore water
during the morning and evening again because of temperature and in deeper
water at midday. In a good flowing river they love to hang around calm spot
in front of rocks or boulders.
WHAT TO FEED THEM:
You are limited to what you can dig up unless you brought along many
different lures. There is the classic worm, crickets, grasshoppers or any
bugs you find under the river rocks when you overturn them. Once you have
catch a fish, clean it on the spot and check its belly for signs of his last
meal. Then go and get the same stuff it has been stuffing itself upon.
FISH NOTE:
Catfish need not to be scale but to be skinned. Beware of its back fin
which will give you a sting every bit as nasty as of a bee. Be careful when
catching and cleaning them. If you get stung, mix up a paste of meat
tenderizer & water and spread it over the wound. Works well for other stings
too. P/S Don't overcook the fish.
FISHING KNOTS:
HOOK ON TO GUT = TURTLE KNOT:
Soak the gut, Thread it through eye of a hook. Make an overhand loop and
pass a bight through it (A*) to form a simple slip knot. (*B) Pass hook
through slip knot (*C) & pull tight around shank.
HOOK ON TO NYLON #1 = HALF LOOP KNOT:
Tread end through eye. Make 4 turns around standing part. Pass live end
through the loop formed nest to the hook (D*). Pull taut and sniff off
fairly close to end (*E).
HOOK ON NYLON #2 = TWO TURN TURTLE KNOT:
Thread the hook. Pass the live end around the standing part to form a loop
and through it. Twist live end around side of loop. Hold the loop and pull
the twist tight. Pass the hook through the loop. (*F) Pull on standing part
to tighten loop on hook. (*G)
JAM KNOTS: (GUITAR!)
For securing improvised hook to guitar or cord.
WITH AN EYE:
Thread gut, make 2 turns around hook and bring live end up through turns
(*H). Ease tight and test for strength.
WITHOUT AN EYE:
Make a loop around lower part of shaft. Make 2 half-hitches from upper end
downward and pass live end through lower loop (I*). Pull on standing part to
tighten.
LOOP IN NYLON #1 OR DOUBLE OVERHAND LOOP:
Double the line to make a bight. Tie an overhand in it. (*A). Twist the end
through again (*B) Pull tight (*C) and snip off end.
LOOP IN NYLON # 2 = BLOOD BIGHT:
Form a bight. Twist the end of it back around the standing part (*D) Bring
end back through new loop (*E) Pull tight and snip off the loose end.
JOINING LOOPS:
CAN BE USED IN NYLON LINE BUT WILL WORK FOR DIFFERENT STRONG MATERIAL. A
fishermen's knot is recommended for gut, which probably could not stand the
strain of this method.
WITH FREE ENDS:
Pass each line through the other loop (*F) and pull tight (*G).
WITH ONLY ONE FREE:
Make loop on one line. Take the live end of the other line through the loop,
around it, and back through and then tie off with either of the knots for
hooks on to nylon.
JOINING NYLON = DOUBLE 3 FOLD BLOOD KNOTS:
*SAS 174
Place ends alongside and twist one 3 ties around the other. Bring live end
back and pass it through the space where the 2 lines cross over the other
line and under its own standing end. (H*) Do the same in the opposite
direction with the other line. The live ends end up pointing in opposite
direction (*I) Ease tight.
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9. Woodsmanship
d. Traps & Snares
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9. Woodsmanship
e. Tracking & Stalking
STALKING WILD GAME RULES:
REMEMBER the old rule: hard ground = toe first, on soft ground = heels
first. Also check the wind. Smoking is perceived by animals up to the next
county so snuff out before you stalk. Not only do you have to move slowly
but to move arhythmically. Taking one step forward, then 3 then 1 or 2. The
even noise of a biped & no matter how careful you walk, you'll make some
noise has no resemblance to any of the forest's quadrupeds. ANY SOUNDS YOU
MUST MAKE YOU TRY TO COORDINATE WITH WIND GUSTS RATTLING THE LEAVES. You
stop often to look around to check the tracks when possible and to observe
the distance. What you're looking for is not a deer but part of a deer, With
covers all around, it's highly unlikely you'd see the whole animal that only
happens in clearings. Wild animals also check their backtracks so you should
look behind you at times. The best way when possible is to hunt with the
wind blowing onward (towards you).
SITTING ON A LOG ART OF HUNTING:
This mysterious old art of hunting recommended so highly by old hunters
is a hard one to perfect. Yet is one of the best way to learn the woods and
see the animals. It consists of obviously, sitting on a log. But not just
for a full minute's rest, nor on just any old log. Once you learn how to
spot an animal runaway, choose a log a couple feet from it. If you're just
starting to learn the woods, pick a log close to a stream, or an inlet on
bog pond. In either case, take a pair of binoculars if you have them. Sit
yourself down-for a couple of hours. Don't smoke, don't make any noise and
move as little as possible.
Simply look around. Traditionally 4 o'clock
or so is tea time for many animals which would be unseen a thousand yards
away in the bush if you were strolling along, will sometimes walk by only a
couple of body lengths from you. Their sense of smell and sight and sound
are as keen as ever. But somehow they refuse to believe that a human being
can sit still like a bump on a log. And indeed most of us can't any more.
Keep practicing. As you do, look about you, watch the leaves in action, the
insects, the birds, the movement of the wind. Smell the damp earth, the pine
needles. If you sit by the side of a young mushroom for the better part of a
dewy night which is surely the ultimate test in log sitting endurance, you
can actually see it growing.
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9. Woodsmanship
f. Weather Prediction
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SELF PROPELLED BIPED:
The concept of walking any distance has almost vanished from urban man's
existence. In the woods there are a few tricks to help along and
particularly handy if you are carrying your home on your back.
YOU GOTTA HAVE RHYTHM:
To get back in the wild for a while one needs training to get himself
back into shape. Swimming is one of the best as well as good walking. A
dozen or so week-end hikes preferably with a rucksack will do wonders in
building your stride and endurance for that 3 week excursion into the
Sierras. Besides they will just make you feel great. Start out with a light
pack load, just a fine picnic lunch, a tarp and a sweater. Graduate to
heavier gear each time. Forget about the charts that say so and so many
miles an hour is good for desert country, and x numbers if you've had a
double serving of breakfast. Like anything else walking can be turned into a
fetish with schedule 10 minutes breaks exactly every 50 minutes for 150
calories' worth of GORP to recharge the old batteries. You are out to enjoy
yourself, not to become an automaton. So taking up a few minutes after you
think you need one is about the right pace.
REMEMBER THE TORTOISE AND THE HARE:
Although I am convinced that everyone has a natural walking rhythm that
comes to the fore given half a chance, the same can not be said for speed.
Revved up by urban living as we are, and eager as we are to get away from it
through camping, we have a tendency to start out too fast. A dashing charge
for the first mile or so of backpacking trip can destroy most of what
follows. Start out at your normal pace, consciously reminding yourself that
you have all day, so what's the rush? And by all means slow down when the
ascent begins. The classic concept here is to try not to expend much more
energy on the upgrade than on the flat ground, which means slowing your pace
in direct proportion to the gradient. If the climb gets really steep, of
course, this may make it mathematically impossible to go on at all. Still
it's a good idea to bear in mind.
LIMPING ALONG:
When you see a backpacker limping down the lane, it usually doesn't mean
he has sprained his ankle. Chances are he's just doing the limp step, or
doggie drag or Sierra Shuffle. Designed to relieve the knee- the joint that
takes most of the strain and vibration of walking - of some of its pressure,
it consists of simply limping. As you put forward foot down and just before
you shift your weight onto it, you relax the leg completely for a second or
two. Relaxing the trailing leg instead for a second before carrying it
forward is just as effective, and for some people and easier habit to
acquire. Half a dozen limps does a lot to relax your knees.
THE INDIAN STEP:
If you want to take the trouble of learning to walk all over again from
scratch, like a baby, you can switch to the Indian step. I would recommend
it more highly than I do except for the fact that it really does mean
developing a while new walking habit, one that becomes hard at that. Still
it deserves mention because it is so much more efficient than our usual
stride. Step forward with one foot, at the same time swivel that hip forward
from the waist and lean into the step. Now do the same with the other foot.
And so on. The feet should come down one in front of the other as if you
were walking on a log. The Indian step tends to develop a longer stride, but
more importantly, when you are using it, that bounce often associated with
walking disappears, it means a lot of energy saved lifting your pack up &
down.
END OF THE TRAIL:
Falling into the sack after a day`s hiking with a pack is no different
from any other camping bedtime except that you have to be more careful how
you do it. No one would take a racehorse directly from a long run on the
track and put him in his stable. First he would be walked to bring down the
sweat and keep the muscles from stiffening. Maybe you couldn't care less
about the perspiration, but watch those muscles. Walk about pack less for at
least an hour, it's a good idea to have along a light pair of camp moccasins
to cool your heels in – before you go to bed your first day out. Otherwise
you may decide to skip the 2nd day.
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10. Movement & Travel
b. Riding Stock
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10. Movement & Travel
c. Pack Animals
TRAVOIS:
For bringing fuel or your prepared kill back to camp, or for other loads
a travois will work if the ground is fairly smooth-it will not on rough and
boulder strewn terrain. Choose two boughs with some spring to them and lash
cross-piece as for the ladder. Add additional struts to provide closer
support. Pull the load on its runners like a sled. If you are pulling loads
over a short distance, lash the runners to come to a single grip. For a
larger version leave the last space clear or fit leather or fabric shoulder
straps to haul it by.
TOBOGGAN:
When you are packing it on snowshoes it is a great idea specially if you
are planning to set up a base camp and are hauling a lot of gear as Indians
and trappers used to do.
BUSH SLED:
There are occasions when it IS NECESSARY to move a heavy load and a bush
sled can be easily made from a forked branch of a tree. The branch is cut
with the prongs of the fork a couple of feet behind the end of the main
branch. A rope or other means of towing the sled is fastened on to this main
part of the branch & across the forks a few straight sticks are laid & the
load placed on top of these.
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10. Movement & Travel
d. Mech/Motorized
Car Camping:
What is Car Camping? Simple. Car Camping is one who uses there car to pack
in & carry their tent and other camping supplies to the campsite. Unlike one
who would use a car to get to a drop off point to start back packing or an
RV which contains most of the equipment. Car camping is considered an
inexpensive way to get out and enjoy the outdoors, yet being ably to carry
quite a bit of equipment.
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10. Movement & Travel
e. On Water
COME PADDLE YOUR OWN CANOE:
From spring break up of the waterways to winter freeze up, canoeing is
the best way to escape into the wilds that I know. The American Indian
craft, fleet of keel as its designer was fleet on foot, goes where the city
mortal dare not, and his motorized transport cannot. Although one can be a
traditionalist, when it comes to canoes the birch bark canoe went out of
commission with the rest. I almost ALWAYS use an aluminum one. It's a
matter of upkeep, care and weight. A canvas canoe is not as fragile as you
would think, and for those whose travels are limited to lakes, they are the
most beautiful and silent craft devised since the Indians ruled the American
waterways. They take the battering of rivers, rapids, rocks much more gamely
than suspected. Still there comes a time when they MUST be recanvassed a task
that is arduous and demands skills. So with the wistful hope that the wooden
canoe will ALWAYS be around for some braver soul to lug and for me to
admire, I have deserted beauty for functionalism. We use a Kinabaly Queen
which is 18 foot lightweight Grumman painted dead-grass green and complete
with carrying yoke and gunwale covers, it weighs 67 pounds. The main
objections to aluminum have been its color, heat problems & sheer
noisiness. Shiny aluminum stands out in the wilds like a nude at the
Vatican. And if your paddle hits the gunwales as you stroke, it is about the
equivalent to hitting the Liberty Bell with a tennis ball. The paint and
gunwale covers don't solve the problems completely but they do minimize
them. Fiberglass would seem at first glance ideal for canoe construction.
But when it comes to synthetics the aluminum canoe is still way out front
in popularity. This is mostly a matter of craftsmanship too many poorly
designed & constructed fiberglass models have flooded the market in the
early days and canoeists became wary of the stuff yet we MUST add that
things have improved considerably since then.
BOTTOMS UP:
Viewed from the bow (or stern for that matter) a canoe hull has one of
two distinct looks: flat bottom or round bottom. The sides of a flat
bottomed canoe rise vertically or sheer in slightly in what's called a
tumblehome. Those of a round bottomed canoe usually flare out slightly.
Again, the round bottom is fine for racing. For canoe camping, where shallow
draft, stability and carrying capacity are important, the flat bottom is
much preferred.
THE KEEL:
Most canoes have a straight line keel, which is what you want for canoe
camping. A rocker keel line curves up, and again is designed for white water
racing. Its maneuverability is excellent, on a windy lake, however you are
hard put to keep it from drifting sideways. Keels become MOST IMPORTANT on
the high-riding lightweight aluminum canoes, whose side drift in a gale can
be disastrous if the canoe is not loaded. The standard centre, or straight
line, canoe keel is from half an inch to an inch deep, and anywhere up to
3/4 inch thick. It should run the entire length of the canoe. Bilge keels
are common on wooden canoes. They are in addition to not substitutes for,
the centre keel. Mounted on either side of the bottom in the proximity of
the chine line, and running for about 5 or 6 feet. They aid in protecting
the canvas when the boat is dragged over beaver dam and other such
obstructions. They also make the canoe turn like a water-soaked log. The
shoe keel is flatter, broader version of the standard centre keel. It makes
for a quite maneuverable canoe with lateral stability considerably above
that of keel less or rocker keel models. At the same time it affords hull
protection over a broader base, making it excellent for white water.
HOW LONG: JOHN?
Within reason, the bigger the canoe, the better. The longer it is, the
easier it is to paddle. A 15 foot canoe is the minimum practical length for
2 persons. The same holds true for one person, if you discount the small
duck shooters intended only for paddling short distances in the marshes. And
which I would heartily recommend a 17 or 18 footer instead, the 15 foot
model has one distinctive advantage in portaging. Surprisingly enough, this
advantage is not its weight, the real advantage is carrying comfort. Once
your party goes beyond 2, a 17 or 18 footer is unreservedly the best. Not
only will it cut through the water more easily, it will have plenty of room
for passengers and gears without lowering your freeboard. The distance
between the waterline and your gunwale at its lowest point, that is the
amount of free and clear of the water to dangerous proportions. The minimum
freeboard advisable is 6 in. & 8 in. on a choppy lake certainly does help.
WHAT TO PADDLE WITH:
Synthetic materials have made definite inroads on the traditional
wooden hull. When it comes to paddles, however nothing beats good old
fashioned natural maple or ash. Maple is the heavier of the two, also
stronger. Both are springy, as they should be. Your choice can and probably
depend on which of the 2 is more readily at hand. Advice on paddle length is
usually rule of thumb: eye level from the floor for the stern paddle and
chin lever for the bowman. If you have to have rule, this one is about as
good as any, though in doubt you should choose a longer paddle over a
shorter one. The basic thing is to feel comfortable with it. To this end,
renting a canoe and testing out various paddles before you buy it; is a very
good idea. Finding the paddle width comfortable for you is the same sort of
thing. The wider the blade, the more energy it takes to stroke with it. A
parallel observation; the wider the blade the faster you will get where you
are going. That does not mean you should use a snow shovel for
the job. But do get a paddle that takes a decent bite. The beaver tail and
Maine guide have a rounded bottom edge. Most other paddles are nearly
squared off. Squared off paddles tend, although not infallibly to stand up
to more abuse without major damage. Speaking of which when you go to buy
paddles, buy two. That paddle we're talking about is going to be in your
hands a long time once you hit the water, so check that the grip fits in
your hand comfortably. It should not be varnished. You will be raising
blisters on your hands easily enough the first time out, varnish on the grip
will only help them along. The blade of the paddle, however should have a
light coat of protective varnish. Not paint. A painted paddle is covering up
something usually a fault in the wood.
Sight your prospective paddle for
straightness. Check to see that the length runs with the grain and that
there are no knots or burrs. The blade should be evenly feathered. If it is
thinner on one edge than the other, you will have extra kindling before the
trip is over.
A YOKE FOR THE TENDER SHOULDERS:
Well, just call me a kid. I would not own a canoe without a yoke. After
you have taken a couple of portages, in all likelihood neither will you. The
yoke is by no means a necessary appendage. But it is certainly a comforting
one to have between thwart (rear seat) and shoulder. And somehow I have yet
to manage to take a canoe trip that does not require at least one portage.
On most canoes the yoke is simply bolted onto the centre thwart, (seat)
which is the natural balance point for the canoe when carried. Probably the
most predominant yoke is the double square pad made by Grumman for its
canoes. The bolsters are serviceable but not entirely comfortable. The edges
tend to dig in. So I drape a shock absorbing horse collar in the form of a
heavy shirt or jacket around my neck before I loft the canoe. I suppose as
an alternative I could gain a bit of weight so my shoulders would be less
bony. A quite efficient temporary yoke can be made by lashing the paddles
blade end to the centre thwart in a wide V, leaving room between them,
obviously, for your neck. The blades are broad enough to distribute the
weight well. Wear a heavy shirt, though for the carry. Lashing paddles in
place takes a bit of time. So does unlashing them at the other end. Also,
although in all likelihood you will NEVER fall when portaging, with this
yoke you nevertheless have a pair of sharp paddle edges at your throat. The
most comfortable yoke I have ever seen was a home-made one of fiberglass.
The owner had a friend make a plaster cast of his shoulders. From this he
molded a yoke in fiberglass, then added an Ensolite lining. With this rig,
carrying an 85 pound canoe was easier that toting home the groceries.
CASTING OFF:
Once you have picked out your canoe, you have got to get it into the
water and then you into it. Then, provided you are both still intact, you
want to propel yourself some place with the paddles. Not too far, probably
the first couple of times out.
A CANOE MUST BE FLOATING WHEN IT IS
LOADED:
That means loaded with you, as well as with your gear- in order for the
weight to be distributed both for balance and to AVOID damage to the hull.
If you are beached, ease the canoe into the water slowly and bring it around
broadside, but not too close. You want to step into it without letting the
bottom scrape the beach. This is easier said than done, & you will no doubt
get at least one foot wet. I usually take off my shoes, & roll up my pants,
weather permitting. Starting from a dock is much simpler. You just step in.
Standard rules call for stepping right on the centre line of the canoe and
lowering yourself gingerly into a sitting position. Now caution is rarely a
dangerous commodity, but too much has been reiterated about the instability
of a canoe. I would not advise anybody to try standing in a kayak. But in a
canoe why not? Lots of people do it safely all the time. At first of course,
you want to develop a feel for the canoe from the orthodox sitting position.
And when a storm springs up, it's best to kneel for added stability. Do so
in front of the seat, resting your rear on its edge. By all means put some
padding beneath your knees. But for a start, the object of the game is to
get a comfortable feel of your craft on the water. Period. You will NEVER
get that while sitting ramrod straight in the middle or kneeling in fear all
the time, as if you are on a log about to roll over. Hang loose. So there
you are, or there the two of you are, sitting in a canoe, two paddles apiece
at hand. The old saying about being up the creek without a paddle has its
origin in the fact that a paddle will break at the most uncalled for times.
Knowing this you ALWAYS carry a spare for each man.
HOW TO PADDLE BEST:
Pick up a paddle, one hand over the grip, the other around the shaft a
short distance above where the blade flares out. Keep your hold relaxed.
Reach forward with the lower arm. The upper arm should also reach forward,
but not as far, keep a bend in the elbow. Now dip the paddle in the water,
and pull the lower arm back, keeping it semi-rigid. At the same time, push
the upper arm forward. To get the most out of the stroke, your torso should
follow the upper arm forward slightly. The main force comes from your upper
arm and you back. Keep the paddle vertical, don't bring the shaft in over
the canoe like an oar. That's it you are paddling. Remove the paddle from
the water reach forward... This is what is known as the cruising stroke & is
the one used almost exclusively by the bow. With two to a canoe, the bowman
sets the pace, one that is comfortable for the stern as well and paddling is
done in rhythmic unison. After a while you find yourself falling into a
natural temp with a fractional rest break between strokes, just before you
plunge the paddle back into the water. The whole thing becomes as
unconscious as walking. Switch sides every now & then; you will soon be able
to flash the paddle across without breaking rhythm or missing stroke. It's
best to get into this habit early. If you don't you will find that as time
passes you develop a distinct preference for paddling on one side. Not a
serious problem, but somewhat limiting.
GOING STRAIGHT: BEST PADDLING METHOD:
RUPERT HOUSE CREES STROKE OF GENIUS" (50% FASTER)
You would NEVER think there was as many different ways to paddle a canoe as
there are. Actually the number of the strokes are simply variations on each
other. But this past summer I discovered an entirely new one which to me as
far as I am concerned, relegates the "J" stroke, the pitch stroke, and most
of the rest of the stern strokes to oblivion. I just named it after the
people who showed it to me, the Rupert House Crees of Hudson Bay. It is so
simple it is obvious. One of those things you keep saying "but of course" to
and wondering why you NEVER thought of it. This stroke consists of digging
the paddle with a blade at a slight outward angle to the direction of the
pull rather than perpendicular to it, as is customary. This automatically
compensated for the torque normally produced by the stern paddler's thrust
being offside.
And it does so without the slightest bit of
drag, since the paddle is not trailed as a rudder. Unlike all the other
torque compensating strokes, this one delivers nothing but power. It is also
the most difficult of all strokes to master and I admit I still have
problems with it on and off. Since the blade is at an angle while passing
through the water, it tends to slip constantly sideways. HOWEVER IT IS WELL
WORTH PRACTISING TILL YOU CAN CONTROL IT FOR IT IS PROBABLY 50% FASTER THAN
THE STANDARD STROKES WITH NO MORE WORK. The most common stern stroke is the
J. After the paddle has been brought in the water, the blade is turned &
pushed away from the canoe, the full stoke forming the characteristic "J"
pattern. This of course produces drag, which slows down the canoe while
steering it. As far as I am concerned, once you master the Rupert House Cree
stroke, all other strokes or combined propulsion and direction maintaining
stern strokes becomes superfluous, not to say inefficient. However there are
some steering strokes for rapid maneuvering which you should master before
you ever venture off the lakes onto even mildly turbulent river water.
STROKE TO STOP A CANOE BY:
The simplest of these is the backwater stroke, used to stop a canoe's
forward motion or to reverse its direction completely. All you do is paddle
backwards. Almost equally effective in stopping a canoe is the jam stroke.
In reality it is no stroke at all, since it consists merely of thrusting the
paddles into the water with the blades perpendicular to the direction of
progress and keeping them there. Both the jam and the backwater stroke
require strong arms, wrists and back if the boat is well under way. Practice
them at slow speed first to get a feel for what is happening to the canoe
and your muscles. If you are going full steam ahead and apply the jam stroke
for the first time you will probably find yourself paddleless, with a
bruised wrist to boot.
SLIDING OVER:
Now that you have the canoe going forwards and backwards, its time to
consider going sideways. Paddling down river, it is necessary to keep the
keel of the canoe ALWAYS almost parallel to the water flow. If the stern
swings too far from this direction, the current will grab it and turn the
whole canoe around. And should there then be a rock in your path while you
are travelling broadside, you will end up with U shaped canoe. The two most
used lateral pulling strokes are the draw & the push. A couple of moderately
experienced people using the draw stroke can slip a canoe sideways over the
waters 10- feet in 10 seconds. If stern and bow paddler stroke on opposite
sides of the boat simultaneously, they can literally turn on a dime. All you
do is reach straight out with your paddle as far as you can and dip into the
water with the blade parallel to the keel. Now pull the boat over to the
paddle. The push stroke is the reverse of the draw stroke. You start with
the paddle next to the hull and push the boat away. Since it is easier to
pull than push in the water, however, the draw stroke is the more effective
of the two. An easier to handle modification is the pry stroke. When the
paddle is put in next to the hull, the shaft is brought to rest against the
gunwale. Then the grip is pulled sharply inboard, the gunwale acting as a
fulcrum, the blade consequently pushing out with more force & setting the
canoe over. Wherever possible, stick with the draw stroke. The pry stroke is
easy to master but because the gunwale acts as a fulcrum, you are actually
pushing the canoe down into the water as well as sideways. This considerably
reduces the efficiency of the stroke in relation to the amount of energy you
expend. Also since the gunwale fulcrum is much stronger than your grasp can
possibly be, it's an easy stroke with which to snap your paddle.
THE BOW RUDDER:
A last stroke is the bow rudder, used for swift turns. Again something
to be practiced many times in a slow moving canoe till you get the feel of
it and learn how to gauge your strength. As its name implies, this
particular maneuver is performed only by the bowman. You thrust the paddle,
its blade vertically, into the water "in front" of the canoe. Set it roughly
at a 30 degree angle from the keel line, with the blade not dug in fully.
Hold it tightly in this position; the flowing water will do its work. The
paddle will try to pull out and push back into your chest, or even your face
if you are short, so hang on. For extra support, with both the bow rudder
and the pry stroke, I wrap the fingers of my lower hand around the gunwale
as well as the paddle shaft. Watch it so you don't pinch yourself.
TIP A CANOE AND RIGHT IT TOO:
If you can, take a few days to practice your strokes and get a general
feeling for the canoe before setting out on a long trip. To do a really good
job of it, put on a bathing suit, find a sizable lake to launch the canoe
in, paddle out a ways from the shore, and lean and twist in your canoe until
it capsizes. You will find it's a lot harder to upset than you thought.
Loaded with gear, the craft will be even steadier. Meanwhile you'll know how
your canoe responds. You'll be confident and hopefully not overconfident
however. It's often recommended that when a canoe capsized, you should right
it first and then bail it out with your hands while treading water next to
it. I am all for righting it. But unless I was several miles from shore, I
would tow it to the beach rather than try to bail under those conditions. In
any event, don't panic and leave your canoe behind if it capsized. Canoe are
either naturally buoyant or equipped with flotation tanks. Either way they
will keep you afloat. Yet everyone who goes canoeing should know how to
swim.
POLING:
The canoe honestly and truly is not the skittish, difficult craft of its
undeserved notoriety. Obviously a broad beamed rowboat is more stable. But
the old maxim about NEVER standing up in a canoe is just so much bilge.
Poling although not used often, is a method of propelling the canoe which
definitely has its place. And to pole you have to stand up. Like all other
canoeing skills, furthermore, poling is an acquired one, demanding more than
a little practice. So get your sea legs in a canoe. Ash poles 12 to 14 feet
long & about an inch and a quarter to an inch and three quarters in diameter
are traditional. One should also strip them from an accommodating tree along
your way. Fiberglass are not only good they are even better. To grip the
river bottom firmly, a canoeing pole is often shod with a cast iron shoe. On
a wooden pole, this serves the added function of keeping the pole end from
fraying or brooding out. A pole shoe is either cup-like or spiked at the end
to aid in grasping submerged rocks. The bit of extra weight also helps the
pole balance and sink. The top of the pole may or may not have an elongated
knob. It's primarily to remind you, when you are intent on the water, that
you've reached the end of your pole. To pole a canoe, trim it that is,
distribute the weight. So that the downstream end, bow or stern depending on
which you're heading, ride a bit lower than the upstream end. This gives the
canoe a tendency to align with the current flow. In addition, angle the side
of the canoe opposite that from which you are working the pole slightly into
the current, to compensate for the side thrusting of the pole. Set the pole
into the water just behind where you are standing, at your normal paddling
place if there are two of you, almost amidships if you are alone. Then push
down. The pole will flex and the canoe moves forward. Feed the pole back by
going up hand over hand until you run out of pole. Finish off the dig by
bending into a slight crouch & giving a firm but smooth shove. Then retrieve
the pole, without dragging it though the water, and start over. Bracing one
calf against the rear seat or thwart add stability to your thrust.
Both parties pole on the same side, usually
alternating thrusts so that while one is completing a push with a momentary
halt to hold the canoe in place. The second member digs in and starts
pushing before the first man retrieves his pole.
TRACKING:
When you reach a set of rapids your aren't sure you can handle don't
try. The usual alternative and the one I opt for is to portage.
Nevertheless, much has been said about tracking but I have NEVER seen anyone
do it. Tracking takes 2 people. Tying a line to the bow & another to the
stern of the canoe, each man tending one line, you walk along the shore etc.
and guide the floating canoe through. But it is easier to portage.
CANOE SAILING:
Although not often used in camping unless one expects to cross long lake
after long lake, a sailing rig, available with many models makes a canoe
more versatile for weekend use. The canoe week-end use. Most canoes rigged
for sailing use either a *gunter or a lantern* single-rig, with leeboards*
and a tiller arrangement*. We've often made a temporary square rig with a
tarp for a lazy day's downwind run, and it's a good thing to keep in mind as
a break in pace. Our latest improvisation on this theme occurred during
Genevieve's initiation voyage in Laverendrye, when after a week of rain we
finally had a sunny day with a good snapping wind. We tied Genevieve's
diapers, washed but undried because of the continuous downpour, in a
four-to-sail pattern & lashed the quartet between two six-foot paddles. With
the paddles held upright between my feet and the stern seat or thwart, we
gurgled along at five or six knots averaging four dry diapers to every 15
minutes.
PORTAGING:
When you can not paddle, pole, float or maybe even track a canoe any
farther, there is nothing left to do but carry it. The very word "portage"
seems for some reason synonymous with hard labor. Yet it's really not that
bad. Besides, it gives you a certain feeling of accomplishment. And I NEVER
cease to get a kick out of the strange walking on the moon feeling you have
after putting down an 80 pound canoe you have carried for a mile or two. You
are walking on clouds. A portage trail usually begins by a natural mooring
spot-some submerged logs, a clearing, a sandbank. In Canada established
canoe routes often have signs at a portage. Once you have nosed into the
mooring, unload the canoe before beaching it. If there are two of you,
travelling light, you can make a portage in one trip. Over long portage, or
if we ran aground on blueberry bushes, one would keep a sharp lookout for
suitably forked trees to park the canoe in. A portage trails often too
narrow and twisting for you to comfortably put the canoe down to rest.
Besides if you put it down, you have to pick it up again. To AVOID this, if
you find a tree forking out at about the 8 to 10 feet level, all you have to
do is approach it slowly, raise the bow of the canoe until it's even with
the V, and prop it there, bow in the wedge, or stern on the ground. Bend
down and walk out from under the canoe. When you're ready to move on, just
duck under the canoe, stand up and back out.
HOW TO PICK UP A CANOE FOR PORTAGING:
The basic principle is not pick it up, but to literally throw it onto
your shoulders. With a bit of practice, you'll find it takes surprisingly
little effort. There are 2 ways to properly heft a canoe unto your
shoulders. The first, the shoulder hoist, is the easier but can only be done
comfortably if the bow thwart of the canoe is so spaced that when the yoke
is resting on your shoulders, your outstretched hand will just reach and be
able to grasp thwart. This happy conjunction of measurements generally
occurs on a 15-16 foot canoe if you are roughly between 5' 8" tall and 6
foot two. To proceed, put the canoe on the ground lying as if it were in the
water. Stand beside it slightly behind the bow thwart and facing the stern.
Bend down. Take hold of the bow thwart, placing your hands close to the
gunwales. Then in one swift, continuous operation, yank up hard, swing the
canoe onto its side, over & up, bend your knees & twist so you're now facing
the bow. With the aid of the momentum from the original yank, the bow of the
canoe has swung over on top of you. Duck your head as it drops down on your
shoulders, yoke in place. The stern will now lift off the ground. Don't stop
halfway through the sequence to think about it. The whole pickup is one
fast, smooth movement culminating the first time in surprise that the canoe
is actually sitting on your shoulder and it all happened so quickly. It's
much easier than it sounds. Just REMEMBER you're literally throwing the
canoe around. A longer canoe say 18 feet will react differently. Instead of
the yoke landing neatly on your shoulders, the inside hull will land on your
head, that confounded yoke somewhere uselessly behind you. Some people do
manage to use the shoulder hoist on the larger model. They'll rest the canoe
lightly on their head as it swings over, stern still resting on the ground,
switch their handhold from the thwart to the gunwales. And then inch back
into the yoke by sliding their hands down the gunwales. It's nowhere near as
graceful, but it can be done smoothly. The other way to hoist a canoe is the
knee roll. Standing midway between bow and stern of your beached canoe, roll
it into its side so the keel faces you. Now reach over it for the centre
thwart, placing the far hand around it by the gunwale, the near hand
grasping the near gunwale. The hand grasping the far side should twist your
shoulders slightly so your back is turned partially towards the bow. Bend
your knees slightly, just enough so they dip under the keel of the canoe,
still lying on its side. Roll the canoe onto your knee by pulling up with
the far arm and pushing away with the near one, give the canoe a slight
shove with the knee and literally throw it upwards and over. Again duck your
head under and into the yoke as the canoe swings over your shoulder. Grab
the gunwales as it comes to rest on your shoulders, and you are all set.
Here again the procedure sounds much more complicated than it is, and here
again, the whole secret is to hoist it in one continuous swift movement. Oh
yes, about putting the canoe down when you get to the end of the portage:
just reverse the pick up procedure. Plan to roll it off your knee so the bow
lands in the water if you're going downstream the stern if you're going
upstream. The current will swing whichever end hits the water first
downstream. Bow first? You're headed in the right direction for going down
the river. Stern first! The current will swing it downstream, directing the
canoe upstream.
STOWING THE GEAR:
Canoe camping allows more flexibility in gear than, say, backpacking or
ski touring. There is no reason to set off without a reflector oven for
instance. In fact there may be good reason to have it along if you're going
to be out of buying distance of a loaf of bread for a long time. Don't get
carried away even though a sturdy 17 foot canoe can carry between 8 and 1200
pounds REMEMBER the portage. Try to keep the cargo down to the point where
you can portage everything in one carry, or at least a maximum of two. Once
you have assembled the gear you want along, you're faced with the question:
to waterproof or not to do so. Even without spilling the canoe, a certain
amount of splash and drip will find its way into the bilge. Voyageur
Enterprise makes a waterproof polyethylene bag with a sliding bar closure
that conveniently seal the package at any height. Ranging in size from 22 to
36 inches to 24 by 60 inches, these versatile envelope bags not only keep
your equipment dry, but will float should you capsize. A common
waterproofing procedure is to lay a tarp over the gear & lash it down. I go
one step further, laying the tarp out along the bottom of the canoe on a bed
of spare paddles spread lengthwise across the ribs as an extra precaution
against bilge flooding in heavy rain. The paddles can be pulled out easily
enough if needed as long as the cargo is not too heavy. After packing in the
gear, I fold the sides and corners of the tarp up & over the thwart like a
Christmas package, and batten it down with some rope. Keeps everything dry
from all sides.
CANOE PACKING TIPS:
ALWAYS pack the gear so that the centre of gravity is kept as low as
possible and most of it is a amidships. NEVER pack a canoe that is not
floating. It won't break the back of an aluminum of fiberglass canoe, but
it's a poor habit to get into. If you're expecting to run into white water,
the load should be tied down securely once everything is in place. Lashing
it all to the canoe may be cumbersome and time-consuming. On the other hand,
trying to find a soggy sleeping bag somewhere along shore down river is much
worse.
A COUPLE OF WORTHY EXTRA ITEMS:
Who would ever take a sponge canoeing? Well it doesn't take up much
space and weighs nothing. Mighty handy for mopping up the bilge. Being more
or less flat, the bottom of a canoe is hard to scoop up water from unless
it's ankle deep. Outside of this one homely little item and some extra
quarter-inch nylon rope for a painter, towing and such about a 100 feet
should do, there is no special equipment needed beyond a good canoe, spare
paddles and a repair kit.
REPAIRS ON THE RIVER:
Neither aluminum nor fiberglass is indestructible. Aluminum one will
acquire small dents while banging into rocks and boulder. The larger ones
can be pounded out by a hard rubber hammer or wooden mallet methodically
wielded. If you don't carry either, put a heavy rock inside your shoe and
pound with the heel. Tap firmly but gently on the inboard side of the hull
using a sock or similar sack filled with sand to cushion & spread the load
on the outside. Most small dents are best left till you get home. To mend a
break in an aluminum hull, first pound out the dent that accompanied it.
Then apply some epoxy and an aluminum patch over the break till you can
rivet a patch on permanently. If don't carry a patch kit and there is really
no need to unless you're going to slop around in some mighty rough white
water. An unexpected crack can be filled quite satisfactorily with a gob of
pine sap and some needles from the same tree. Fiberglass boats usually come
supplied with a small cloth and epoxy repair kit able to solve most of the
problems you will encounter. If you somehow manage to stove in the whole
side, repairs will have to wait till you get home.
ON THE RACK FOR THE WINTER:
Your chances of damaging an aluminum or fiberglass canoe while on the
water are slim. The chances of damaging it at home are great. Probably more
canoes are ruined by careless storage than by any other factor. The best
place for a canoe is upside down on the rafters, if you have rafters in your
garage. The second best place is upside down on sawhorses in your basement.
WEARING A KAYAK:
Canoes were designed to transport freight, food and passengers across
the watery web of North America. Kayaks are designed to carry one hunter out
to sea in search of game, whale, seal etc. As a hunting craft on turbulent,
ice-choked oceans, it had to be as agile and fast as its target & so it
became a craft one literally wears. A kayak will turn you into a mermaid of
the waves, taking you down remote rivers inaccessible to any other craft.
You will probably want to start your inland nautical career in a canoe. But
after a while, no matter how fond you are of it, you will begin thinking
about switching to a kayak. It's not as stable as a canoe, generally
speaking. You'll have to cut down the bulk of your camping equipment. And
although there are two man models, it is primarily a one passenger craft,
which usually means each man for himself. On the other hand a kayak is
swift, incredibly maneuverable and seaworthy. Dr. Hans Lindemann sailed a
Klepper across the Atlantic in 1956. And since you're wearing it instead of
sitting in it a kayak gives you a feel for the water no other craft does.
THE PADDLE:
A kayak paddle is double bladed and usually feathered; that is the
blades on both ends of the shaft are set at a right angle to each other. If
they were set parallel, when one was in the water, the other would be
exposing its flat side to the wind, causing a not inconsiderable amount of
wind drag as well as steering difficulty. The blades themselves may be
either flat or lightly spooned. The spooned blades look racier and are a bit
faster. On the other hand it's more difficult to brace with them. Also
reverse paddling with spooned blades is more complex, less effective.
Paddles range in length from about 82 inches for white water up to 102
inches for cruising. Sometimes the paddles are jointed in the middle of the
shaft so they can be disassembled for storage and transportation. However
this joint is a potential weak spot. A happy combination is to use a one
piece paddle and carry an easily stored jointed one as your spare.
PUTTING ON THE KAYAK:
The first time I climbed into a kayak, I was on my own for less than 10
seconds with the inverted boat floating rapidly down river. The second time
it was still well under thirty seconds. Later we became partners. To MAKE
SURE you get into a kayak dry, squat down beside the cockpit, facing the
bow, the long double paddle horizontally across the deck of the kayak behind
you. Grasp the paddle shaft and cockpit rim together in one hand. Now lean
the kayak and the paddle slightly towards shore so the paddle touches
ground, making a brace. Shift one leg over the gunwale into the boat, MAKING
SURE you keep the weight distributed slightly towards the shore side so the
bracing effect of the paddle remains. Shift in your second leg, followed by
your seat. You're in.
PADDLING:
Since the kayak double-bladed paddle is a two cycle engine, so to speak,
the stroking pattern used for canoe propulsion is inapplicable. The basic
kayaking stroke uses a considerable amount of wrist action because of the
feathered blades. And much the way canoeists tend to favor one side for
stroking, kayak paddlers favor one wrist. Usually the right if they are
right-handed as fixed hand. It's the one that keeps a firm grip on the
shaft, setting the angle of the blades for each stroke. Starting on your
fixed-hand side, as you dip the blade into the water, the wrist is bent
slightly upwards. When the stroke is completed as you're switching to the
alternate side, the wrist drops down, rotating the paddle ninety degrees so
the opposing blade will now dig cleanly into the water. Meanwhile the other
hand holds the shaft, but loosely enough to let the paddle twist freely.
Watch out for blisters your first couple of times out. The shaft should be
roughly 45 degrees to the horizon during a power stroke, the blade fully
submerged. Back-paddling is the reverse of forward. There is no need to
reverse the blades. Practicing back-paddling is important, not only to
master the maneuver itself, but to help you develop a feel for setting the
blades quickly. The strokes used primarily for white water include such
advanced strokes as the Duffek besides modification on the draw, the sweep
and others. However, white water kayaking really MUST be learned visually.
You can work on it yourself once you have watched it. The best thing to do
is search out one of the numerous clubs founded by river runners and learn
from them. Pass your swimming test before you go.
MANEUVERING:
The simplest way to change directions in a kayak when all that's needed
is a broad arc to drag the paddle as a rudder at the completion of a stroke,
one the side you want to turn towards. For an abrupt change in course use
the forward stroke on one side and the backward one on the other. With
practice you'll just about to be able to make a right-angle turn.
THE BACK BRACE:
It may not be walking on water but it's as close as you'll get. With the
back brace you're actually leaning on the water. It can be used as a
maneuvering stroke. But its primary function is to enable you to brace
yourself against capsizing particularly in turbulent waters where an eddy
will suddenly sweep towards you sidelong. Its secondary function is to get
you cutting straight into the eddy. Hold the paddle shaft at waist level
directly in front of and close to you. The blade on your leaning side should
be slightly behind you flat on the surface of the water with its leading
edge slightly higher than the trailing edge. What you have then is
ESSENTIALLY a water ski as an outrigger. And as a water ski can support your
weight, so can the paddle blade. There are 2 variable that dictates how much
the back brace can bear; the speed of the water and the distance of the
paddle blade from the hull. The farther out the blade planes, the greater
the leverage action. The faster the water speed, the more support it offers.
Back bracing will help you keep your balance when you first start out
kayaking. Any time you feel yourself tipping just push yourself upright
again against the brace. Once you're whizzing along with real momentum, even
on a quiet lake, because of the aerodynamic properties of your hull the back
brace can also be used for turning while at the same time giving you
something of a feel for the rakish angles of a white water run.
As the blade planes across the water or
slides just below the surface and you lean with it, the kayak hull candles
out of the water so it rides asymmetrically on the water surface. Now the
current pulls at the hull on the side opposite that on which the paddle is
brace. You swivel around the paddle almost as if it were nailed to one spot
in the water.
THE ESKIMO ROLL: (OVER BEETHOVEN?)
It may sound like an Arctic breakfast bun but the Eskimo roll is a vital
part of kayaking one that puts you underwater and out again. It is very
difficult to perform in the sponson supported Aerius, on the other hand the
stability of this craft practically eliminates the need for it. Should you
feel yourself tipping in the Klepper boat, a simple back brace will set
things properly. Still if you get a get a chance to practice the roll in a
racing kayak, not only it is fun, but it is a challenge that will give you
an immense amount of satisfaction & boost your kayaking confidence as well.
Before you begin practicing the maneuver we're certainly presupposing you
can swim by now, capsize your kayak a few times as you would a canoe, to get
a feel for its stability. Theses upsets will also relieve you of the nagging
suspicion that you get trapped in the snug fitting boat if it overturned. So
automatic it is to fall out of a kayak when it spills, you'll have to work
at staying in long enough to practice your Eskimo roll. In an Eskimo roll,
as the kayak tips over, say to the left, instead of struggling to restore
your craft's balance, you help it along until you have turned all the way
upside down. Then, with the aid of the momentum gained in going that far
around, and with the flat of a paddle blade extended out perpendicular to
the kayak for maximum leverage you pull yourself. With what almost amount to
an upside-down brace, the rest of the way around on the right side until you
are upright again. If at all possible, learn the roll from someone
experienced in the maneuver. It is difficult to figure out from a book, more
importantly, it is very difficult to analyze your own moves as you go around
underwater. A pair of snugly fitting goggles, which offer less water
resistance than a snorkel mask. And a nose clip will help a bit too, making
you more comfortable and permitting more careful study of your underwater
antics. But first, to visualize the maneuver, picture a large clock in front
of you. Sailing in the clock as if it was sunset in a kayak and its paddler.
Let's say he is rolling over to the left or port side. His kayak's tipping
toward the horizon call it 9 o'clock. Now he leans from the waist in the
opposite direction, to the right as he goes over. Once he submerges, he
starts straightening out his back. By the time he reaches 6 o'clock, the
completely upside down stage, his back should be straight. Now he begins to
lean to the left. As his torso begins to reemerge from the water, he leans
to the right again, if he's leaning properly, from the waist, his hip motion
is pushing the kayak further upright. That takes care of swinging his torso
around. Now about his head. For maximum momentum & smooth rolling, it's
important that the head be the last thing to leave the water, not the first
as it is instinctive. The paddler waits till his body is almost clear of the
water to snap his head up, straightening his back and returning to an
upright position. Now you do it. As you perform the stroke, relate all
movements to your own body, not up or down. While you're performing this
double sideways jackknife with your body, you will be using the paddle to
pull yourself around with. As you capsize, let's say to port again, slide
you left hand along the shaft till it reaches the left blade. Twist the
shaft so the right blade is feathered, ready to slice through the water
rather than fight it, by the time your head is at 6 o'clock. Now reach out
with the right blade till it lies horizontally on the surface of the water
somewhat towards the bow of the kayak. In effect this gives you an upside
down brace. Pull the extended paddle towards you as quickly as you can. It
should make a wide arc from 3 to 4 o'clock, and from somewhat in front of
you to slightly behind you. By the time the paddle has completed this arc,
your body will be out of the water, only your head still submerged. Keep the
back braced, and using hip action pull your head out. Resume normal paddling
position. Your circular momentum may be surprisingly strong, however. Be
prepared to brace on the port side to keep from rolling over again & again &
again... Verbal description makes the Eskimo roll sound much more difficult
than it is, not to mention agonizingly slow. Which is why, although you can
learn to do it yourself, it's best to see it in action & to have some help
around the first times you try it. 50 years ago the roll was considered a
feat almost impossible to perform unless you were an Eskimo and your
survival depended on it. Today it's a stroke every kayak racer can perform,
strenuous but not impossibly difficult.
STRAIGHT ON:
THE PRIME RULE IN RIVER RUNNING IS ALWAYS TO REMAIN RELATIVELY ALIGNED
WITH THE CURRENT. In a one man kayak you're on your own; keeping your bow to
stern line parallel to the water movement is thus easier. In a 2 man kayak
or canoe, the paddlers MUST operate in unison. Good communication, good
rapport, and experience as a team are ESSENTIAL. It's particularly important
for the bowman to REMEMBER that he has a whole long canoe following him.
Under the pressures of trying to read and follow a swift following river,
it's all too easy for him to think in terms of the boat's bow, and maybe a
couple of feet behind him, clearing an obstruction, forgetting about the
rest. All rules have an exception. When running over the haystack or big
standing waves, that form when large amounts of water drop over a ledge or
boulder, don't head straight into the waves. Take them at a slight angle, to
keep the bow from burying itself in each successive wave flooding the boat.
READING WATER:
The only way to learn how to run a river is to run one. Obviously you
start with the easiest rivers, sometimes going over them time and time again
to gain confidence and skill, until the roaring siren of spray lures you on
to ever more difficult waters. There are however several basics to take into
account before you set out, things to watch for or to learn from. First,
know your canoe or kayak. Secondly, know your river. It's sound practice to
walk the banks before you shoot wild rapids, mapping out which route you
intend to take You can ALWAYS change your mind once you're on the water if
for some reason you need to. But by having your actions planned in advance,
you have something specific to deviate from. This makes it much simpler to
respond. Grade 1 & 2 rivers, classified by local clubs and usually marked on
canoeing maps, need not be inspected before you descent. However, if it's
your first run, you may want to pull over to shore occasionally to give
yourself time to think?? Running rapid calls for a lot of split second
decisions. REMEMBER that water flowing in a channel is slowed by friction at
the sides and the bottom. That means your fastest current is at surface
centre.
However obstructions such as boulders, drops
and ledges introduce hydraulic phenomena which vary this centre flow from
spot to spot. Also there's the fact that when the channel narrows, the water
speeds up, when the channel fans out, the current becomes more sluggish.
There is an old maxim that in order to stay on course your boat MUST be
travelling faster than the current. It is not even necessary to paddle to
maintain that speed, though you'll probably be doing so. Merely by floating
on the fast centre of the stream, you are already exceeding the speed of the
remaining flow of water & thus have some control. To fully utilize this
differential in maintaining direction and stability, you should leave a
paddle in the water between strokes that are spaced out, to act as a brace
leeboard or rudder in the slower current.
CHANNELS:
The strongest current usually leads to the most open channel, and the
best. If a river fingers out, the channel that begins to drop the soonest is
generally the least violent. Those that look smoother and seem to have less
of a drop to them are apt to end in one large, abrupt plunge. REMEMBER they
all have to reach the same level. The one that starts first has the smallest
gradient. Water in a channel will run faster as the banks narrow. The main
chute is usually marked by a tongue of relatively smooth, swift surface
water rippled by small standing waves. Those are the ones that seem to
remain in the same spot relative to the riverbank. The more even the pattern
of standing waves, the more clearance your hull will have. Since the
widening out at the end of a channel reduces the water's velocity, the fast
flowing channel water itself runs smack dab into a much slower current below
it. This cause large standing waves or haystacks. Fierce in appearance, they
are an indication of good depth. Small broken waves are not. The same
principle holds true when a river fans out into shoals. The largest waves
are produced in the deepest channels.
RIVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM:
(INTERNATIONAL STANDARD)
Grade 1) Very easy. Clear passages. Small regular waves. Obstructions
include sand banks and bridge piers. (Grade 1 and 2 are for beginners) Grade
2) Easy. Clear if somewhat narrow passages. Small ledges. Enough spray to
ship some water. Grade 3) Medium. Passages clear if sometimes only one
canoe's width. High degree of maneuvering skill and teamwork needed.
Backwash eddies, rocks, high waves. Spray shield recommended for canoes.
Visual inspection needed. (Grade 3 to 5) Experienced only Crash helmet
necessary. Grade 4) Difficult. Extended rapids. Wave boiling high and
irregular. Rock obstructing passage. Pre shooting inspection and spray
shield ESSENTIAL. Grade 5) Very difficult. A ladder of violent rapids. Sharp
drops, whirlpools, obstructions like those of a pinball machine. Powerful
crosscurrents. Steep gradient. PRE-SHOOTING INSPECTION ESSENTIAL often
dissuading. Grade 6: Good luck Charlie Brown. Beam me up Spock. Even Rambo
says no go!
ROUND THE BEND:
The deepest channel is ALWAYS on the outside of a bend in the river, but
that is also where erosion is the quickest. And crosscurrents and water
rolls flowing under the weakened banks can cause many a quirky current with
fast flow. Often these crosscurrents together with centrifugal force can
suck your craft up against the outer bank. To AVOID ramming, you have to
keep the boat as close to the inside of the bend as possible. There are 2
ways to handle the curve itself. There's the hell-bent-for-leather paddling
forward approach where you swing the bow in the direction of the curve, your
craft's trajectory being similar to that of a racing car. This method is
exciting, flashy and gives you not time for mistakes. Hold off it till you
become more experienced. What might be called the Bank of England turn is
more sedate, gives you time to rectify mistakes. Sober but safe. Paddle
backwards with enough force to keep the stern ALWAYS angled slightly towards
the inside of the curve. Your hull will then be more or less parallel with
the current it does not go around the curve the way a car would either.
OBSTACLE COURSES:
Solid obstructions like rocks and water-permeable ones like trees have
very different effects on the current. A boulder will deflect enough water
to form a cushion between your boat and itself. This deflected water also
helps you skit the obstruction. A fallen tree will stop your canoe as
effectively as a rock. However, water ducks under it and flows through
branches as if they were sieves. So there's no water bed to land in. Because
of this you MUST take evasive action much sooner than with a solid object.
If you do run into a tree, once you're broadside, the canoe will almost
certainly capsize, by the undertow along the tree's trunk. Grasping at a
branch only aggravates the problem. Bracing well out on the side away from
the tree will sometimes offer relief. But the best solution is to AVOID the
problem by giving it wide berth.
SETTING:
So there's a huge boulder or a tree right in your path and you've been
to told to stay away from it. What do you do, stop and get out of the canoe?
Not quite but almost. You stop the canoe's forward movement by
back-paddling. Then you cross the river, canoe or kayak set at a fractional
angle away from the steam flow, till you get in a line that clears the
obstruction. After all that hurried back-paddling, however you may need a
brief rest. In rough water, it may not be possible to reach shore. So you
find a nice little eddy to park in for a while. Any obstruction that breaks
the water's surface has an eddy behind it. Very roughly the eddy is twice as
long as the obstruction is wide. And in the eddy the water flows upstream at
a mild speed. Set your canoe into it stern first - or you will spin around,
executing a maneuver similar to that you used to AVOID an obstruction dead
ahead. Besides serving as a rest spot, eddies have another practical use.
They are equivalent to the old locomotive roundhouse turntables. The
occasion may come when during a maneuver your stern swings out of line far
enough so you can't keep control. The current sweeps it around till you're
descending the river broadside in a suicidal fashion. In this case it's
easier to continue the swing by paddling forward until your bow is facing
upstream. It's embarrassing to shoot a river backwards but it can be done.
Broadside it cannot. Once you have realigned your reversed canoe or kayak
with the current, find a large eddy to pull into if you can. Then nose your
bow into the current upstream, keeping the stern in the quiet eddy. Just as
the bow enters the current, which will head it downstream, lean and brace to
the inside of the turn to AVOID capsizing. Several maneuvers like this and
you will eat hearty and sleep well come evening.
Back to Top
10. Movement & Travel
f. Vertical
Travel
FOOT LOCK:
By means of the foot lock you can climb to any height on the ropes,
stopping to rest when your arms tire. The foot lock is made by holding onto
the rope with both hands lifting the knees and kicking the rope to the
outside of one foot. The foot on the opposite side to the rope is pointed so
that the toe picks up the rope which is pulled over the foot which was
against the rope and under the instep of the foot which picked it up. The 2
feet are brought together and the rope is now over the instep of one foot &
under the ball of the other. Then to secure the grip and lock the rope the
feet are place one on top of the other so that the rope is clamped down by
the foot on top. By straightening the knees and rising the hands the body is
lifted and a fresh grab taken for the next rise. In descending the body is
bent the hands lowered and the foot lock released and a fresh grip taken
with the feet at a lower level on the rope. It is advisable to wear boots or
shoes when climbing bush made ropes. This method of descending is much SAFER
than sliding. In sliding there is grave risk of bad rope burns to hands or
legs.
Abseil FOR ROCK DESCENT:
The abseil is used for rock descent work generally at times it also can
be used to climb up or ascent. In the abseil the body is upright but the
legs are stretched out and the feet pressed against the rock face. The rope
passes down between the thighs, around one thigh and diagonally up and
across the upper half of the body and over the shoulder opposite then coming
down at the back to be held by the left hand to check speed along with the
right hand which is the master guide.*
SINGLE ROPE LADDER WITH STICKS:
A single ladder is made by opening the lays of the rope and inserting
cross sticks each about 8 inches long as shown with an equal amount
protruding on either side of the rope. These cross sticks MUST BE secure to
the rope and it IS NECESSARY to lash to the robe above and below the sticks.
The distance between the sticks should be from 15 to 18 inches. To climb a
rope ladder hold the hope with both hands, bend the knees and draw both feet
up together and lay them with even pressure on the next cross sticks. When
the footing is secure raise the hands and continue the action which is
somewhat like that of a toy monkey on a string. Bush single rope ladders
have the advantage that they can be used easily by people who may not be
able to climb by ordinary means. They provide an easy means of ascending and
descending a cliff or a look out.
SINGLE ROPE LADDER WITH CHOCKS:
This type of ladder has the advantage of being portable and quickly
made. The chocks of hardwood a about 6 inches in diameter & 2 inches deep
and are suitably bored to take the diameter of the rope. Splice an eye at
the top end and seize in a thimble to lash the rope head securely. To
secures the chocks put 2 strands of seizing between the strands of the rope
and then work a wall knot.
Back to Top
10. Movement & Travel
g. Overcoming
Obstacles
UP AND DOWN:
The old " because it's there" syndrome seems to be pretty deep rooted in
man. But even if we have the urge to go over rather than around the cliff.
REMEMBER THAT IT TAKES MORE ENERGY TO GO OVER THAN AROUND MOST OF TIME AND
IS MUCH MORE DANGEROUS. However as long as a mountain can be walked up, all
that is required is common sense caution, stamina and an awareness that in
many cases it will be more difficult to come down than it is to go up.
Knowing that, you will want to conserve your strength as best as you can.
One way to do so when you MUST constantly take large climbing steps is to
use your hands for extra body leverage. After raising one foot, place your
hands on the forward knee and push, thus helping your second foot to lift
the weight of your body and pack. AT ALL TIMES WATCH YOUR BALANCE AND
REMEMBER THE PRINCIPAL RULE OF HILL CLIMBING: KEEP AS VERTICAL AS POSSIBLE.
The force for your feet will then be straight down. If, instead, you
scramble uphill, your weight is distributed back and out, down the face of
the hill. On loose soil or talus, this can mean starting a slide. On firm
rock face, as long as your shoes are gripping the surface, everything is all
right, should they slip, you may well end up with some nasty abrasions or
break. Technical rock climbing is what we all think of as real mountain
climbing. Walking up somehow does not count. If you enter the world of
technical rock climbing, you'll become acquainted with such equipment as
swami belts, ascenders, wedge nuts, pitons and carabiners not to mention the
all-ESSENTIAL rope. (NOT DOPE) However, you can not enter this world alone
or with a book. Personal teaching is the only passport. In many areas there
are professional climbers who will give you lessons. Such climbers usually
post their notices on the bulletins boards maintained by most mountaineering
and camping equipment shops. Eastern Mountain Sports has one of the best
known climbing schools in the country offering courses for the beginners as
well as intermediate and advanced climbers. Do take them, your life could be
on the line. With proper training all should go well.
SETTING A ROPEWALK:
When spinning ropes of 10 yards or longer it IS NECESSARY to set
crossbars every 2 or 3 yards to carry the strands as they are spun. If cross
bars are not set up the strands or rope will sag to the ground and some of
the fibers will tangle up with grass, twigs or dirt on the ground. Also the
twisting of the free end may either be stopped or interrupted and the strand
will be unevenly twisted. The easiest way to set up crossbars for the rope
walk is to drive pairs of forked stakes into the ground about 6 feet apart
and at intervals of about 6 to 10 feet. The crossbars MUST BE smooth and
free from twigs and loose portions of bark that might twist in with the
spinning strands. The crossbar "A" is supported by 2 uprights and pierced to
take the cranks "B". * These cranks can be made out of natural sticks,
mortised slab and peg or bent wire if available. The connecting rod "C"
enables one man to turn all cranks clockwise simultaneously. Whatever turns
your crank boy! Crossbars supporting the strands as they are spun are shown
"D". A similar crank handle to "C" is supported on a fork stick at the end
of the rope walk. This handle is turned in reverse (anti-clockwise) to the
cranks "C" to twist the connected strands together. These are laid up by one
or more of the feeders. ALWAYS MAKE IT A RULE TO TURN THE FIRST STRAND
CLOCKWISE; then the laying up of the strands will be done anti-clockwise and
the next laying will again be clockwise. Proof that your rope is well made
will be if the individual fibers lie lengthways along the rope. In the
process of laying up the strands, the actual twisting together or laying
will take some of the original twist out of the strands which has not yet
been laid. Therefore it IS NECESSARY to keep twisting the strands whilst
laying together. When making a rope too long to be spun and laid in one
piece, a section is laid up and coiled on the ground at the end of the rope
walk farthest from the cranks. Strands for a second length are spun and
these strands are married or spliced into the strands of the first section
and then the laying up of the second section continues the rope. The actual
marrying of the strands is done only in the last lay which when completed
makes the rope. The ends where the strands are married should be staggered
in different places. By this means rope can be made and extended in section
of great length. After your complete length of rope is laid up. Pass it
through fire to burn off the loose ends and fibers. This will make your rope
smooth and most professional looking.
THROWING A ROPE:
It is easier to throw a coil of rope than to attempt to sling a loose
end - whether you are throwing upwards or outward - and it helps to split
the coil so that it does not tangle. Have a large knot or weight on the
throwing end. MAKE SURE that you keep hold of the other end ! Think about
the anchored end and what will happen to it when the other end reaches
target. If throwing a lifeline for instance to a fast-moving raft on water,
are you going to be pulled into the water yourself?
Anchor the end to a tree or weight. ALWAYS
over-throw a line so that the recipient stands a good chance of catching
part of the rope even if they this the end. Coil half the rope on to the
fingers and the palm of the right hand, then raise the index finger and coil
the remainder on the other fingers only. Pass the second coil back to the
left hand. As you throw release the right-hand coil a split second before
the left. Anchor your end if you think there will be sudden strain on it and
your position is precarious.
FOR A LONG THROW:
Tie a suitable missile to the end of the rope. Coil the rope carefully
on the ground or loop it loosely over the other hand so that it will pay out
freely as you throw the missile. Don't risk loosing your end of the rope.
Tie that to an anchor, a heavy stone for instance. Use a Killick Hitch*
(later). If throwing a weighted rope over a branch keep out of its path at
is swings back towards the throwing point! If throwing a lifeline PLEASE
don't knock out the person that you are trying to help.
ROPE BRIDGE NOTE:
The first "A" frame is hooked onto the ropes and pushed forward with a
stick. The footing a straight sapling is dropped down onto the crotch of the
frame and the bridge builder walks out along this and hooks on the next "A"
frame pushing it out the required distance and repeats the process till the
far bank is reached.
ROPE BRIDGES MUST NEVER BE OVERLOADED, ONE AT
A TIME IS A SAFE RULE.
If Monkey vines, Liana or Lawyer vines
(Calamus*) are available instead of bush made rope use any of these. They
are much stronger and will make a bridge strong enough for 4 to 6 men.
TO MEASURE THE DISTANCE ACROSS A RIVER OR
GORGE:
Select a mark on the opposite bank "A" and then drive a stake on the
near bank "B". * Walk at right angles for a know number of paces and put in
another marker stake C and continue an equal number of paces and a third
marker "D". Turn at right angles away from the river and keep moving back
until the center marker stake and the mark on the other side of the river
are in line "E".* Measure the distance from the third or last marker peg "D"
to this point "E" and this distance will equal the distance across the
river.
TO GET A ROPE ACROSS A NARROW DEEP RIVER:
Fasten a stout stick to the end of the rope. The rope MUST BE in the
middle of the stick. Select a forked tree on the opposite bank. Throw the
free end of the coiled line with the stick across the river to the tree.
After many cast when it has caught; test it with 2 or 3 people to MAKE SURE
the line is secured. Fasten the near end of the rope to a convenient anchor
and then the person crossing the line, the lightest of the party hangs onto
the line lifts his legs and hooks them over the rope with his feet toward
the opposite bank. By this means he can work himself across the river and do
all the work which has to be done on that riverside.
SAFETY LINE FOR RIVER CROSSING:
A bush rope can be spun to server as safety line for crossing flooded or
fast rivers. The rope is taken across by a team member and fastened to an
anchor on the opposite bank. As a safety line it should be above the water
level. The person crossing should stand on the downstream side of the rope
and face upstream, he crosses by moving his feet sideways. One step at a
time and holding all the time to the rope which helps him keep his balance
if by chance the current is so strong that it sweeps him off his feet his
grip on the line will save him from being washed downstream then he can
regain his footing and proceed.
Back to Top
10. Movement & Travel
h. Navigation
THE COMPASS:
It's a rare trip away from the civilization on which a compass need not
be carried. You many NEVER have to use it, but it's a friend of whom you
ALWAYS can ask the question. "How do I get out of here?" and be properly
enlightened. (Beside calling Spock.) Old Silva compasses are about the best
one can find around. There is also the new Suunto KB-14 but it is hard to
use while wearing glasses. Then there's the matter of keeping your eye on 2
things at once; the compass and the object on which you are trying to get a
reading. Just holding the compass in your hand, looking at the needle, then
at your goal, then back at the needle and so on, is not only bound to induce
errors, it'll drive you batty. The problem of sighting is solved by one of
two means. The lensatic compass has a small lens on a hinged arm that opens
vertically, while the compass itself remains flat. As you look through the
lens, you sight the distant object through a slit opposite the lens, the
lens permits you to read your compass dial at the same time. The second
method and the one I find the most comfortable, employs a hinge mirror for
the same purpose. This is the way the Silva Range works. Silva's
experimental floating dial compass promises even better results, since most
people find it easier to take a reading from a floating disc than a needle.
USING THE COMPASS TO GET THERE:
Before you start taking bearings, MAKE SURE that you are well away- six
to 10 feet at least from any magnetic objects, like the axe head, the car
hood for instance, that would cause the compass to deviate. Way in the
distance is Raintree Mountain where you want to go. To find your bearing,
sight your compass on whatever side of the mountain you want to head for.
Let the needle come to a complete rest pointing to Magnetic North. Now twist
the compass housing on which the degree scale is engraved till the housing's
north marking lines up exactly with the north point of the needle. On the
Silva compass the housing has a north arrow point of the needle. On the
Silva compass the housing has a north arrow outlined on it; all you do is
line it up so the needle and arrow point together. Now read the degrees
where the dial crosses your sighting line. This your bearing. Say it turns
out to be 265 degrees. Pick a good landmark in line with your mountain- tall
twin trees, a rock formation, maybe a creek bend- and walk to it. You're
descending into a valley and can no longer see old Raintree, but you get to
your first goal. Find another one with a bearing 265.... Well, after you've
walked awhile, stopped for lunch, cooled your feet in a stream and gone
looking for that rabbit you thought you saw in the bush, you suddenly
discover you don't know which way you're wandering any more. (Rats!) Just
take out your compass. Line up the 2 Norths again, and you'll know which you
get there, take out the compass once more, find another 265 degree landmark.
And so on, till you've crossed the valley &
find yourself on the side of the mountain you were looking at when you
started out.
THE COMPASS AND THE MAP:
Hand in hand with a compass goes a map. Even if you don't need a compass
to show you the way, it will show you how to orient your map. When you
unfold your map in the middle of the woods, which way do you lay it out so
it conforms to the actual terrains? Well, the top of the map is ALWAYS
North. So you just take out the trusty old compass and set the map so the
North needle of the compass points to the top. Right? Wrong! REMEMBER being
told back in high school that there was a difference between the true North
and the Magnetic North? Well, here's where the dichotomy comes into play.
At the bottom of a topographic map you'll see
a small V, composed of a half-arrow and a line running true North-South,
usually labeled "Magnetic North declination at centre of sheet." If you lay
your compass down and turn the map so that the half arrow of this V lines up
parallel with our compass needle, the map will be in tune with the terrain.
Proceed from there. The compass can also be used for triangulation. If you
don't recognize where you are on the map, pick out two distant landmarks in
the terrain that you can also locate on the map. Orient the map as usual to
compensate for magnetic deviation. With your compass, take a reading on the
two landmarks, and jot down the figures. Through each of the landmarks on
the map, draw a line running at the same degree or angle, from the magnetic
North direction line indicated at the bottom of the map as the visual
reading you got. Where the tow lines intersect is your location. That's
triangulation, using two known points to fix the position of a third, but
unknown one. How to take your bearings with the compass, how to use it to
make your map conform to reality, and how to locate where you are on the map
by triangulation, are all you will probably need to know for most general
camping purposes. If you plan to do a lot of hiking in new country or are
interested in orienteering races the standard manual on the subject is
Kjellstrom's: Be Expert with Map and Compass.
STEPPING INTO YOUR MAP:
The best maps for camping in this country are those made by the US
Geological Survey and in Canada the Department of Mines and Technical
Surveys. Unlike the planimetric maps you get at a gas station, which show
everything in a flat two-dimensional perspective. You know where the roads
and river are but you can't tell about the hills and valleys - the
Geological and Technical Surveys maps are topographical. They may be printed
on flat paper, but they do show the terrain very much in 3 dimensions. And
as with 3-D movies projected on flat screen, you can learn to step into a
topo-map visually that is. At the bottom of each map is a heading "Contour
Interval" followed by the specific interval for that map. Say it's 20 feet.
That means every one of those countless brown lines on the map are in
reality 20 feet apart. If the lines are very close together, this means a
steep rise, far apart, a shallow rise. You can mentally walk down a steep
mountain, watch the lines widen out in front of you as approach a lake,
which of course has no contour lines because the top of the water is flat.
Instead it will have a number like 1528 which indicates the height of the
lake from sea level. If an adjoining lake has an elevation of 1922 and they
are say 2 miles apart, the river connecting them is almost a waterfall the
whole way. If the second lake has an elevation of 1534, well then, the
connecting river is probably as smooth and soft as a cat's back. Unless you
see a marking for marshes along its bed, in which case it may be
impenetrable even by canoe. The US topographic maps usually come in a scale
of 1:62,500 or 1:24,000. That is 1 inch on the map equals either 62,500 or
24,000 inches in the real world it represents. The decision as to which map
is made depends on the terrain. You get what they got as the saying goes.
The same thing holds true for the year when the map was made. Usually unless
a big flood or earthquake has made big changes around the area. Check it
out.
GETTING LOST AND UNLOST:
Any camper who tells you he's NEVER been lost is either lying or hasn't
ever been off the beaten track. The great art, of course, is finding your
way again. And the only real danger is panicking, and not being able to
think what to do. A little preparation will go a long way towards ensuring
your safety in the wilds. As for the sense of direction it does not really
exist even in those who think they have it. Tests have demonstrated time and
time again that the most experienced guide will walk around in an ever
tightening spiral when blindfolded and let loose on a flat field on a cloudy
windless day offering nor external clues as to his direction of progress.
This phenomenon of circle walking has NEVER been explained. What people with
the so-called sense of direction have are powers of observation honed far
beyond the average individual's and a certain familiar feeling for the
terrain, that's all. This means you too can have a sense of direction.
DEVELOPING A SENSE OF DIRECTION:
The first thing to do when trying to get the fell of an area is to stop,
look and listen. Look at how the vegetation changes as it goes up or down a
valley, becoming sparser or lusher, the trees taller or shorter, which
species grow where and so on. Observe which way the fallen trees lie usually
the direction of prevailing winds. Check how a stream has cut its gorge, to
see the thickness of the soil layer, the direction of rock outcroppings, and
variations in plant life. The moss growing on the bark of that tree over
there, is it really on the north side as legend as it? Well, yes and no. If
the tree is blocked from the sun by others, there will be more moss on the
northern side. Then again it may well be all the way around the trunk. And
there's a lichen that looks almost like the moss in question, but which
grows on the sunniest side, which may or may not be the Southern side. Find
a trail, look for animals tracks, figure out why the animal chose the run
that way, where it was going, where it was coming from. Now listen. Close
your eyes, so you focus your hearing more.. What does the stream sound like
when your back's to it? When it's at your side? Rub your feet across the
gravel, sand, a mossy surface, leaves. When you can tell the difference in
the sounds immediately, you're well onto the way of laying down some
rudimentary sensory paths in your mind. Listen to the rustling of the
birches. Strange, it's louder when the wind blows up the valley then when
down. Cup your hands behind your ears to simulate an animal's way of
hearing, and you'll be surprised how many more sounds you pick up. Touch a
boulder on the sunny side. On the shady side. Of course there's a difference
in temperature, but you want to be so intimately aware of it that when
you're climbing up a hill hand over hand, passing from shade to sun to
shade, your fingers register it as automatically as your eyes, or the back
of your neck. Feel the bark of a pine, of a birch, of a maple, of anything
you can get your hands on. Register as much texture, temperature, shape and
size as you can. Take a series of short sniffy breaths. Gracious, it's
really smelly out. There's a musky scent from the river, a dry, acrid one
from the oaks by your side, even a burning smell, the campfire way on the
other side of the ridge.
You had not thought it possible to smell it
all the way over here & so it goes. Soak & saturate the sense till the
wilderness, at least the part of it where you are, becomes second nature to
you. Pick a path running from your camp to a landmark a couple of thousands
feet away, a large boulder, a lone tree, a bend in the creek or a rotting
log. Walk slowly towards your object. Look behind you frequently to see how
landscape features changes as you approach, pass and go on. Get rid of that
urban tunnel vision. Look up into the trees, down that path, to the side,
but not just at eye level. Check things out from ground to sky. What's that
growing over there? And is that a bird's nest up by where that fluttering
sound comes from. Walk the same trail in the morning, on an afternoon and at
night without a light. Approach your goal from different directions, fanning
out in an arc from left to right. Soon that little patch of ground will be
familiar to you as a walk down your own street corner. In all probability
even more so. Fine, you're well on the way to developing a sense of
direction for that type of terrain. Now as time passes & you camp elsewhere,
do the same thing again & again. Observe! Focus! Forget everything but your
5 senses in relation to where you are at the moment - slowly you'll build up
your 6th sense.
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Back to Top
11. First Aid
b. Advanced 1st
Aid
Back to Top
11. First Aid
c.
Field Expedient Medicine
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EMERGENCY SITUATIONS:
If in your wanderings you should become trapped or inured and be unable
to go on, and if people know your whereabouts and expected date of return,
as somebody should whenever you venture into the real wilds. That's another
of those common sensible precautionary measures to take, just in case
prepared to aid to the search party. First stay calm, take stock of your
situation, make yourself as comfortable as possible, and WAIT TO BE RESCUED.
HELP & HOW TO AVOID CALLING FOR IT:
Whenever you're going camping, familiarize yourself with the area
beforehand, either by talking to people who've been there or by writing
ahead for information. Not only can advance information make your trip safer
and you more self-sufficient, it can make it more comfortable. You can AVOID
the May-June black fly season or the September rains, or whatever other
early phenomenon plagues the area. You aren't trying to learn all about the
place where you're going, just enough to gear up properly for it and AVOID
any seasonal drawbacks it may have. Second to knowing something about where
you're going is making ready for it. Particularly for any sudden adjustment
it may involve for your body. Take water into arid land, sweaters and maybe
a space blanket into cold. Be sure you've got your snakebite kit with you if
you're heading for poisonous snake country. Know the simple basics of
artificial respiration before you take the kids out to a lake. By all means
add calamine lotion to your first-aid kit if you happen to be allergic to
poison ivy, and have a tetanus booster shot if you had not gotten around to
it somehow in the routine of the last couple years and so on.
CHICKEN VIA BE CAREFUL!:
Probably more accidents are caused by campers and not just beginners but
even experienced one who should know better- forcing themselves into
situations they know are questionable. Before you get into trouble, admit
you can't balance across that slippery log. If the trail is steep and
dangerous, don't call it duck soup. If a storm is brewing, make camp rather
than pressing on. A veteran wild-land backpacker Harvey Manning says,
"Beginners die on trails because they don't have the guts to be cowards."
DISTRESS SIGNALS WITH TURF:
Cut the turf in a pattern to leave a permanent DISTRESS signal on the ground
at the same time as collecting building material.
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13.
Communications
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14. Children In the Wilds
CAMPING WITH BABIES & KIDDIES:
No, you will not be locked up for child abuse. Children have not ALWAYS
been raised with central heating & supermarket around. With today's
high-quality camping gear it is very easy to care for kids in the wild.
There are 3 types of classes, carry along, anchors and catch me if you can.
Infants ride and even fall asleep in a Gerry or similar kiddie pack with
such an ease you almost have to force yourself to REMEMBER they are there.
Your partner will REMEMBER better since he or she is carrying most of the
gear for all three. Anchor stage is the only one that limits your mobility
to any real extent. Between the ages of 2 to 5 they become too heavy & too
restless to be carried for a prolonged period. It's then a great time for
base or canoe camping but not for backpacking. In the last stage start by
letting the child assume some responsibility for his own gear and anytime a
child takes initiative encourage it. Channel their collecting habit in the
direction of gathering twigs for the fire, picking up berries, cleaning up
the camp site etc. It has been noted by camping parents that kids almost
invariably seem to make a leap forward in development both when they arrive
in the wilds and when they return home. With a little care & planning, it
will be a great experience for all of you. Start out with short trips before
tackling long ones. One more point easily overlooked, backpacking a baby
usually lulls the little tyke to sleep So you may have to remind yourself to
check that he's not getting too much sun or wind back there and don't forget
the diapers. OOPS's! As for the bedtime comes along it won't be a problem if
you have taken along the favorite lovey, teddy bear or blanket or toy.
Letting a baby or young child sleep in his own bag at home for a couple days
before you set out will convince him he's got the real thing with him when
he hits the road.
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15.
Wilderness Hazards
a. Weather
SOME ADVICE ON KEEPING THE TENT DRY:
Some tips for the novice. Veterans of camping will have learned these and
probably have a few ideas of their own.
-- Examine your camp site carefully before setting up the tent. That nice
flat spot, is it a low point? If you camp in a hollow, you may end up
camping in a puddle if it starts raining.
-- Is this a new or borrowed tent? If so, put that rain fly on NOW even if
the sky is blue. You can take it off, now that you know how to put it on.
The tent will breath better with it off. But make sure you remember where it
is. I met a couple who learned the hard way just the night before. They
didn't know what the rain fly was, and put it under their tent as ground
cover. It rained on them, and that's when they realize something was wrong.
Reading the instructions in the middle of the night with the rain pouring
down on them, they realized what they had done. So they had to unstake the
tent, move it, and place the rain fly over the tent, which was rather soggy
by this point.
-- Are you camping under trees? The trees will help break the rainfall, but
they will continue to drip after the rain has
stopped. You win some, you lose some.
-- A canvas under the tent is a good idea, but watch out. If your canvas
extends out further than your rain fly, rain will run off the rain fly and
onto the canvas. Depending on the slope, the rainwater may then run *under*
your tent.
-- You can improve your tent's rain resistance by applying seam sealer to
your tent. Spending a couple dollars and a few minutes ahead of time will
help. But don't expect miracles.
-- Condensation will form on the tent's interior walls, unless you keep the
tent ventilated.
-- Placing the sleeping bag on a pad or an air mattress is a good idea. It
will not only improve your sleep by keeping you warmer and the bed softer,
it will keep you up off the tent floor should you get water in the tent.
-- A little bit of water seems inevitable if you're camping in the rain. But
some precautions and some common sense can make the difference between damp
and wet. Oh, if you have room, toss that book you've been meaning to read in
with your camping gear. If you get stuck in your tent waiting for the rain
to pass, it'll be worth its weight in gold.
HOT OR COLD SLEEPING NOTE:
NEVER sleep at any time directly on the ground, winter or not, use a ground
sheet or if none then use evergreen as a thick mattress to isolate you
from the cold ground. Cold comes from the ground.
MAKING CAMP IN WINTERTIME:
Cold is one thing, wind another, so in Wintertime make your camp in a
spot as shielded from the wind as possible. If you pile enough snow up on
the weather side of your tent site, it will break the wind very nicely.
Don't pile it against the tent itself however. As long as you stay below the
tree line, you should be able to find a grove of trees in which to set up
camp.
MAKE SURE you check to see how heavily laden
with snow the trees are, however before you start unpacking your gear. Large
quantities of snow and rime bumbling down unexpectedly could flatten your
tent. Camping in groves of shorter and younger trees usually enables you to
AVOID much of this problem. Along the same line, don't make camp in front of
potential avalanche. To be really safe, that would include any hill with a
gradient of over 25 degrees. Snow somehow manages to get tracked into a tent
no matter what you do. A tunnel is your best defense against it. But even if
your tent is so equipped, in setting up a snow camp, flatten a platform of
snow for your tent that is big enough to give you plenty of walking around
room on the outside and a big porch in front. It will save a lot of mopping
up with the sponge. Keep pushing back any drifts that encroach. An evergreen
forest offers you free for the finding, winter's own brand of insulation. If
you can locate the beds of needles that collect beneath the trees, they will
make a good ground cloth to keep your tent off the snow. Often it's not
possible to find a spot level enough on the beds of needles themselves.
Still if you can get at them, it's worth mining and scattering them over the
tent site, not only because of their insulating qualities but because they
will help keep the tent floor from freezing to the snow as well. Should such
a freezing occur incidentally don't try to rip your tent free, it will just
do that rip. The only safe way to detach the tent is to steam it free with
boiling water. Real winter weather is where the self-supporting tents like
the Eureka, Bishop or Bauer Draw-Tites come into their own. Sometimes it's
almost impossible to drive in tent stakes. In deep snow you can use dead men
long fallen branches or logs to which you can attach your lines so that log
and line, form a T. pix 264* Then you bury the log well in snow and stomp it
down. Pour some cold water over the dead man to freeze it in place. Tighten
up the lines & you're set. Rigging to well-anchored bushes and trees is
easier and advisable wherever possible. Once your tent is up, pile snow all
along its bottom edge, on top of the snow valances if you have them to a
height of half a foot or so. Don't cover any fabric that is not waterproof.
If you're using a full fly & you should this won't be a problem. If you're
not, pile the snow only half the height of your tub floor.
If you've come in on snowshoes you'll soon
discover they make excellent snow shovels as well. If you're skiing it's a
good idea to have along a light weight aluminum snow shovel. One with a
demountable wooden handle weighs barely over 1 pound. The snow around your
tent should be packed down well. But down don't press too hard against the
tent itself or you may strain it. In the mountains, lacking snow, pile
boulders on what you now call "sod cloths" instead of "snow valances" to
help keep the tent in place and prevent cold winds from rushing in under the
floor.
INSIDE AND OUTSIDE:
The difference between inside and outside a tent may only be 10 or 20
degrees, still you would be surprised how much heat just your own body will
give off. There is also the heat from the stove if you're Cook-King in a
vestibule or cook-hole and that from a lantern. Make full use of the heat
you have and bring saw and axes inside the tent. Steel becomes more brittle
with a drop of temperature. You should also bring in some wood, tinder and
kindling, even if you don't expect to use wood fires. Put it on a piece of
plastic and let it dry out. If you NEVER use it, you can ALWAYS throw it
out, but in an emergency you have the makings of a small fire enough to warm
you up and dry out logs for a larger one. As for boots, take them off the
tent while knocking off most of the snow and mop up the rest with the
sponge. In a tent it's best to wear extra pairs of wool socks instead of
shoes. Leather stiffens up in the cold. To keep it from getting too stiff,
wrap shoes and boots in plastic bag and put them in the foot of your
sleeping bag. But MAKE SURE that they are as dry as you can get them first,
wiping them off with a rag or sponge.
HYPOTHERMIA AND FROSTBITE:
Hypothermia or exposure or just plain freezing to death is a condition
that develops when external circumstances are such that the body cannot
maintain its normal temperature, even in the central cavity where the vital
organs are located. When your core temperature drops 15 to 20 degrees below
normal you are dead. Percentages wise the number of people who die from
hypothermia as compared to those killed crossing the street is small.
Someone who has fallen through ice or been otherwise exposed to such a
degree as to hazard hypothermia should be watched for the symptoms of it.
HYPOTHERMIA SYMPTOMS:
Fatigue, lack of coordination in speech and movement, loss of memory and
rationality. Also dilated pupils, slow pulse and breathing. In extreme cases
foam will foam around the mouth. Keep the victim as warm as possible,
particularly internally with warm liquids. (NO BOOZE, NO) Don't let him
assure you through his shivering that he's all right - a common false
reaction on his part. In below freezing weather, before you get a good case
of hypothermia, you'll get frostbite, which is much more common. If you
should get frostbite don't rub it with snow. Frostbitten areas should not be
rubbed at all. They should be warmed up slowly by wrapping gently a blanket,
wool scarves or something else warm and soft or by immersing in tepid water.
The water MUST be about body temperature, NO WARMER. Severe cases lead to
gangrene, lesser cases will thaw out with excruciatingly slow and painful
feelings.
COLD & HOT WEATHER
CAMPING:
Camp on the Lee side of rocks and trees when it's Cold and
you need protection. When it's Warm, make camp on the Windward side so the breezes help cool your wilderness home.
NOTES:
ALL SHELTERS MUST BE ADEQUATELY VENTILATED TO PREVENT CARBON MONOXIDE
POISONING AND ALLOW MOISTURE TO ESCAPE. Two holes are needed- have one
near the top and one near the entrance.
BED HUNTER HEATER: To
heat up stones and wrap them well then insert them in your sleeping bag.
BRION BED HUNTER HEATER
TYPE 2:
Also there is the old trapper trick: Dig a rectangular hole, fill
it with hot coals which you then cover up with earth then lay a blanket over
it all. It is the ideal to sleep warm, or: Where you place your bed, lite up
a fire for a few hours in order to dry up the ground and to heat it up. Then
remove the fire and clean the ground, add green boughs or canvas to the
ground because one MUST NEVER sleep directly on the ground.
BROWSE BED:
It is famous but its construction requires a great deal more systematic
efforts. You need first of all a surprising quantity of the softest
available boughs. Among the best for the purpose are the small young
branches of the heavily needled balsam, but fir and even spruce will do
nearly as well. These boughs can in the absence of knife and axe be stripped
off by hand. They can easily be carried if laid one by one over a long stick
which has an upward angling fork at its bottom whereupon interlocking
needles will hold the light although bulky load in place. The operation is
started by placing a thick layer of resilient green boughs at the head of
the bed. These we lay with their underneath upward. They are placed, in
other words, opposite from the way they grow. The butts are kept well
covered and pointing toward the bottom of the bed. The browse bed is
thatched in this matter with row after row of boughs until it is a foot or
more thick. Whereupon it is reinforced and leveled by the poking in of soft
young evergreen tips wherever an opening can be found. Unfortunately it has
to be redone every third night.
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15. Wilderness Hazards
b. Animals
Back to Top
15. Wilderness Hazards
c. Insects
BUGS CORNER:BZZZZZ!
Speaking of bugs. There you are in the middle of a beautiful mountain
meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the breeze. A perfect spot. No!
For several reasons. Tall grass is there the chiggers, ticks and other bugs
like to camp too. Also alpine meadows are fragile. Setting up a tent there
for a week may leave a visible scar for years For your own comfort and that
of the meadows, pitch your tent at the edge instead of the middle. It will
be as fragrant and the view will be better. At the edge of a meadow is also
where you find bushes and trees to provide wind shelter & shade for the heat
of the day.
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15. Wilderness Hazards
d. Plants
Back to Top
15. Wilderness Hazards
e. Formations
Back to Top
QUICKSAND:
SHOULD YOU BE ALONE REMEMBER THAT SWIMMING IS YOUR KEY OUT. As
wilderness hiker your chances of running into quicksand are probably better
than you realize. If you frequent flat low lying areas with a high degree of
soil moisture, they're in fact quite good. However your chances of getting
sucked down into it are almost nonexistent, particularly if you have a basic
knowledge of the phenomenon and know how to react since quicksand is
ordinary sand. Should you come across quicksand, if you are just beginning
to sink, ankle deep, you can usually still move quickly back to the way you
came. In most cases the quagmire or quicksand only goes down a couple of
feet and can support this kind of movement briefly. Shout a warning to your
companion, if you are with one. IF YOU'RE SHIN OR KNEE-DEEP, FREEZE. The
less you move at this stage, the slower you will sink. Should you be
carrying a pack, remove it slowly and with as little shifting as possible.
If you are sinking fast, drop the pack at once. If as is much more likely,
you've only sunk another inch or two in taking off the pack, throw it as
lightly as you can towards firm ground. Best of all is to have a length of
all purpose rope along. Shirts, sweater and other such articles of gear can
also be knotted together to make a line. By attaching it to the frame or one
of the accessory or shoulders straps before you throw the pack, you can
usually pull yourself to solid ground alone. If everything else fails, or if
you are sinking very quickly, lie down flat. Quicksand is basically a
hydraulic system. The larger the surface area over which your weight is
distributed, the less the sinking. Spread your arms out 90 degrees from your
body for extra support and lie there. If there's any possibility of rescue,
stay motionless and wait. Should you be alone REMEMBER that swimming is your
key out. Propel yourself slowly forward on you stomach with a shallow breast
stroke.
FALLING THROUGH ICE: Brrrr.
The safety of walking across unknown ice, even in the middle of
wintertime is questionable. However sometimes it MUST be done. If so, it's
not a bad idea to carry an opened knife in your hand. Should you fall
through it can be used as an ice pick to help pull you out. Gauging ice
thickness can be difficult, since it rarely freezes evenly. One tell tale
sign of potential trouble ahead is dark ice intersped (mixed) with lighter
colored ice.
DARK ICE IS DANGEROUS ANYWHERE IN THE
WORLD:
Dark ice means that something thawing, a rapid current or a subsurface
obstruction for instance has thinned the ice layer, usually to the point
where you are actually seeing the dark water underneath it. If it's that
thin there is a risk of you or your equipment falling through. This is an
important point to REMEMBER if you are covering slough or swampy territory.
Even with the temperature hovering around zero and the surrounding lake
frozen to a depth of several feet, the slough ice can be paper thin in
spots. What happens is that decaying organic matter on the shallow bottom
generates heat, which rises to the ice, melting and thinning it. Within 5
yards, you can go from firm ice to ice-cold water. Should you fall through
the ice, the sudden cold could be enough to make your heart stop literally,
if it is not in good shape. If you feel yourself falling, go spread eagle at
once. Hopefully your arms will strike the ice around the edges of the crack,
keeping you from going under. Then although your first reaction will be to
struggle out, take a few seconds to break off the surrounding thin ice of
the hole. Flutter your feet & literally swim out and onto the ice. The knife
will be very handy for hooking into the ice and pulling yourself along with.
Stay low and crawl till you get well back along the path you came on and
know to be solid enough to support your weight. If you are close to a soft
bank on shore, roll in it quickly. Should your clothes be at all water
repellent the snow will sponge a great deal of moisture off. Get a fire
going and soup warming. Change your clothes as quickly as possible and drink
plenty of hot liquids.
AVALANCHES:
Predominantly an occurrence on young, sharp mountains exposed to severe
weathering, avalanches come in two varieties; rock and snow. Any slope with
a gradient of over 25 or 30 degrees is susceptible to slides. Whether they
will actually occur or not, and particularly when, would be hard to predict.
Probably the majority of fatal avalanches are triggered by people crossing a
slope that is ready to run. If you stay away from these, your problems
should be minimized. A rock slide that is ready to let loose usually looks
like it. Boulders, stones, those small stones piles called scree and talus
flowing down a mountainside in what looks like a frozen river are obviously
potentially a flowing river - of stone. Don't walk across it. Any sloping
surface with a layer of loose rocks, large or pebble sized should be
considered a hazard, not fun to try sliding down on. THE CARDINAL RULE WHEN
CROSSING SUCH A LAYER IS TO KEEP A VERTICAL POSTURE. IF YOU CAN'T! DON'T
CROSS! By bending over and using your hands to steady your walk, you
automatically force the weight concentrated on your feet back and out down
the hillside. It may be just the extra push of a hillside of talus in exact
balance with gravity needs to start it sliding. If you do get caught in a
rock slide, your one and only hope is to outrun it. If that's impossible,
and there's a ledge or outcropping you can reach & duck beneath, the slide
may pass over you, then again it may bury you. Prevention is as usual much
easier than the cure. Admire possible rock slide areas from the distance.
Potential snow avalanches may be harder to spot. Treeless streaks running
down a steep mountainside are usually indications of past disasters, as are
piles of uprooted trees at the bottom of a clear run. Avalanches tend to
occur on slopes exposed to wide temperature fluctuations. They are
particularly likely when old snow has frozen into a solid crust of slippery
ice, upon which new snow settles. Anything can set it off. If you are skiing
or snowshoeing across a slope and you notice cracks running ahead of you or
making semicircles up a hill, a slide may well be imminent. Get back to
safety if you're less than a third of the way across the slope. If you're
more than a third across, its usually faster to go on than to turn around.
Don't stop to look at the view. Should the slide already be descending on
you, drop your poles, kick off your skis or snowshoes and try to get the
rucksack off as well before it hits. As it hits, try literally to swim up
the wave of snow, keeping your face as high as possible. If you get buried,
try to cover your face and mouth as well as you can with your hands and
arms. Should you not be too deeply buried to move, you might be able to dig
yourself out. But which way is up? If you can't tell, spit. REMEMBER, spit
doesn't fall up.
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15. Wilderness Hazards
f. Human
Back to Top
THE RUCKSACK VERSUS THE PACKSACK:
At the risk of setting myself up as a target for slings and arrows of
derision from backpackers and campers across the country, I will say right
now that in my opinion the frame backpack has been oversold. On trips
lasting three or four weeks without a chance to re-provision, the backpacks
larger capacity can be a plus. But for general outdoor use it has some
practical drawbacks. Let's look at it closer. The first thing you see
prominently displayed in the sales literature and books on backpacking is a
panting and exhausted hiker carrying the old-fashioned low-slung rucksack.
He's leaning over as if he were charging into a tornado. Next to him is
another camper with a high-riding, hip-belt-supported frame backpack,
walking bolt upright like a Prussian general, but still managing to look
relaxed and cool. Next, vector lines are drawn in to show how the rucksack
distributes its weight further back than the pack, so the wearer has to
compensate for it by leaning forward. Thus he wastes energy. This is true.
The point is, however, that although it takes a bit more energy to carry a
rucksack, its advantages far outweigh, if you'll pardon the pun, this one
disadvantage. The backpacks disadvantages, on the other hand, are pretty
hard to ignore. For instance, let's try on the backpack. Although it's
cumbersome, it is also comfortable, just as the manufacturer said. And the
hip belt does pull the weight in, making a load easier to carry. (You can
get hip belt for a rucksack, but it's not as efficient.) Of course since the
load rides so high on the pack frame, it's a bit clumsy to put on, but
you're good at balancing. Besides, it's a minor point. Balancing on the
trail, however, is another matter. For example, there's that icy cold
glacial stream with a convenient log spanning it to cross by. The log's a
bit slippery from dew and moss. Still, under normal circumstances it would
not be difficult to walk. However, your centre of balance is now up on your
shoulders, instead of your hips as nature intended. Luckily, you do have a
long six-foot hiking staff that's been getting snared in the woods all day
along with the top of your high-riding pack, which ALWAYS seems to be
reaching out for low-hanging branches so you think about balancing yourself
across the log with the staff plunged into the river bed. Unfortunately,
this would mean bending over rather steeply, which turns the balancing act
into something for the Great Wallendas. In the end, you take the pack off
and inch it across the log like a toddler with his push toy. Once you get it
to the other side you put the pack on and stride away, nice and upright
again. There are a couple more balancing feats to conquer during steep
ascents & descents but nothing serious.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A RUCKSACK:
Several large outside pockets 3 or 4 is the standard. With these outside
pockets you can pack your gear so that everything you might need quickly is
easily accessible during hiking. Another thing to look for is leather good,
tough, durable and waterproofed on the bottom also for the shoulder traps
and accessory straps on the top flap or sides of the back. The shoulder
should be padded. All fitting should be of leather. You also want good tough
fabric, high quality duck or heavy nylon for the rucksack itself. For
maximum stuffability the flap should have 2 straps instead of a single
centre one. Most rucksacks have a frame either contoured metal bows or
tubular ones to help make them ride more comfortably on your back. If you
try a rucksack MAKE SURE that it is not empty so that you will have a good
idea of how it feels on the trail. Probably the best of the lot are the
Linchenneiger and the Mountaineer made by Class 5 which is 30% larger than
the first they are excellent modern rucksacks. Second in line is the French
La Fuma. Incidentally a waist strap keeps a rucksack closer to your body
thus improve your balance on the trail. The old Bergans are classics if you
can find them go for it. One of the most important things to keep in mind
when buying a pack is getting one of the right size. Don't get one too large
for comfort. More difficulty is encountered by carrying too large a bag than
by any other single factor. A pack frame should be body contoured for
comfort and is best made of lightweight tubular aluminum alloy, preferably
with heli-arc welded joints. Stay away from angle iron construction, it
twists out of shape very readily. Most people agree on a strong, abrasion
resistant nylon bag. However it has to be waterproofed on the inside. The
bag should have a minimum number of seams and be reinforced at all major
stress and attachment points. Clevis pins are easier to work with to attach
the bag to the frame. Carry a few extra ones along. MAKE SURE that zippers
are nylon rather than metal. The harness for a pack including a hip belt as
well as shoulder straps should be fully adjustable in all directions. The
hip & shoulder pad should be firm.
WHAT TO PACK IN THE PACKSACK BESIDE YOUR
COLOR TV, PC & VCR:
Beside the rucksack, sleeping bag and tent or tarp with ground cloth
here are the:
MOUNTAINEER'S 12 ESSENTIALS recommended by experts of all types:
1) AT LEAST ONE COMPLETE CHANGE OF
CLOTHING including extra for such contingencies as rain & cold weather.
2) EXTRA FOOD. Include extra rations in your minimum. This is your
insurance policy in case something goes really wrong.
3) SUNGLASSES. Every time you set out for a strange area it's good to
have a pair along. If you are planning on desert, alpine or winter camping,
it's a rare occasion that you will not need them. Even Eskimos worry about
snow blindness.
4) A KNIFE. A substantial pocketknife is the order of the day. No
need for Bowie knife and the big sheath knife for those who are out to
tackle bears with bare hands. A good Swiss army knife is excellent or a Buck
for bigger job.
5) FIRE STARTERS; jelly, ribbon, tablets or impregnated peat bricks.
There are emergencies where a fire is both necessary and difficult to start.
Every kit MUST include a supply of starters of one kind or another.
6) EMERGENCY MATCHES. Fire starters alone don't a fire make. You need
matches. Long wooden ones are best & soaked in wax to make them weather
proof and keep them in a waterproof container.
7) A FIRST AID KIT. See the proper chapter on how to build one.***
8) A FLASHLIGHT. Everyone should carry his own and add extra
batteries & bulbs just in case.
9) MAPS. You should have a map when going to all but the most
familiar places. It's not only a safety factor but can add a lot of
enjoyment to your trip, helping you to find the best spots and sights.
10) A GOOD QUALITY COMPASS even two might help in case the first one
goes berserk.
11) A SPACE BLANKET. It did not exist in the first writing up of this
list. Today it's an invaluable safety precaution. Weighing only 2 ounces it
opens up to a full 56"X84". It reflects up to 90% of a sleeper's body heat
while at the same time keeping out rain, rain and snow. Not to be used as
camping blanket but ESSENTIAL as emergency gear for all kinds of use
including signalization
12) THIS BOOK! THIS BOOK!
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER:
Pack everything you need into your rucksack, then unpack it. Pack it
again. Everything in its place and a place for everything so that you can
find anything blindfolded. Putting the most needed things in the most
accessible places & keeping the heaviest objects in the pack closest to your
body so they will bear down less on your shoulders but not so close they
poke into your back. Lash your sleeping bag to the outside frame. Rolling
your clothes takes up less place. Waterproof Matches in many places.
SUNGLASSES, LIP BALM & CHEWING GUM:
In winter camping don't overextend yourself, stay dry and keep in shape.
In other words, try to AVOID trouble. Every winter camper should have
sunglasses along. Snow blindness caused by the white glare is painful and
can be permanent yet simple enough to AVOID with sunglasses. Yellow tinted
ones will only aggravate the glare conditions thus to be AVOIDED. Polarized
lenses are best. As for the nose and ear pieces put moleskin on the inside
of them for comfort. Lip balm is self-explanatory item of winter gear. In
below freezing weather, check your face and hands and those of your
companions occasionally for telltale white spots of frostbite especially on
your cheeks, chin, ears, nose or forehead. If any of your limbs begins to
feel numb while you're moving around and active, warm up by a fire and get
some hot soup into you. Chewing gum as long as you chew with your mouth
closed, keeps the circulation up around your face, reducing the chances of
frostbite.
THE OMNIBUS BANDANNA:
If you think the old Western bandanna disappeared as Tom Mix rode over
the sunset, you have another think coming. It weighs next to nothing and is
as versatile as a sky hook. We usually take three apiece, using them for
anything from havelocks to potholders, napkins, washcloths, towels, and
handkerchiefs. In mosquito country, a really great way to keep the bugs away
without soaking your face in insect repellent is to douse your bandanna
liberally with it and then wrap it around your neck. Easy to wash and
literally dry in minutes on a windy or sunny day.
ONE SHIRT, TWO SHIRTS, THREE SHIRTS,
FOUR:
Layering is the basic principle of dressing for the outdoors. A cotton
shirt, a chamois shirt, and a wool shirt or a sweater, one on top of the
other is as warm in winter as a heavy lumberman's jacket. Though one jacket
sounds preferable to three shirts, in fact it's not. You'll be amazed how
warm you get carrying a pack or even just plain moving about. Wearing layers
of clothes, you have a readily controlled thermostat at your finger tips. As
you warm up during the day you remove one layer at a time and at night you
reverse the process. The best outer layer (not counting rain gear) is 100
percent wool. The shirt often sold under the name "Alaskan" has the
advantage of being quite tightly woven and thus more resistant to wind than
a sweater. It also has button-down flap pockets for keeping sundry small
things, like a pipe and tobacco, an extra bandanna, the flashlight, or the
waterproof matches, handy. Kept away from moths & sparks, an Alaskan lasts
forever or at least twenty to twenty five years, which is good enough. My
wool layer is usually a battered V-neck sweater I've had for fifteen years
and am sort of attached to. The best of all sweaters, if you don't mind the
bulk and really want to keep warm. They shed water and will keep you as dry
as a sheep during drizzles. The preference for wool is no sheepshearer's
public relations plug. Wool is simply the best material for warmth,
resilience, and durability. Even when damp or wet, wool retains its bulk,
and thus a large part of its warmth. Down, on the other hand, will clump up
when even slightly moist, losing all its insulating quality.
SOCKS, THE HEIGHT OF LUXURY:
The standard saying is that shoes will make or break your walking. I
certainly would not minimize the importance of comfortable, well broken in
shoes, but without good socks too, you'd probably be better off walking
barefoot. Again wool comes out on top.
FROM SEVEN LEAGUE BOOTS TO BARE FEET:
When you start looking for footgear, keep saying to yourself," an ounce
on my foot is like a pound on my back." At all times you should keep your
footgear as light as the terrain will allow. Even when wearing boots-and the
two activities for which they are ESSENTIAL are mountain climbing & skiing,
stick with the lightweight models. When it comes to canoeing, I would no
more wear boots than anchors on my feet. For that matter, NEVER wear a new
pair of any kind of shoes camping. That goes for surplus US Army Tropical
boots and Reichle climbers right down to moccasins. Now I'll be the first to
admit that on occasion, when I didn't have the time to break in new
footwear, I've broken this rule. And I've gotten the blisters to prove it.
Shoes need breaking in. The trail is no place to do it.
TOOLS OF THE TRADE:
The first tool most people think of when their planning to go camping is
a hatchet or axe. Now a hatchet is a dangerous thing. When you consider a
hatchet, consider the fact that the popular term "hatchet job" didn't
originate with Lizzie Borden's forty whacks, but refers to the poor quality
of work and frequent self-mutilation that usually occurs when the instrument
is used for chopping wood. The standard recommendation is to take along a
Hudson bay style single bit axe with a two to 2 1/2 pound head and 28 inch
handle, preferably one of hickory for strength. I have no quarrels with
this; it's probably the best all-around axe you could get. The question is,
should you have an axe along in the first place? The answer in most cases is
no! Axmanship in camping is dying. Which is all to the good. Unfortunately
many city dwellers & suburbanites going out to the woods with an axe in hand
seem to run amok, chopping here, chopping there, as if they were somehow
conquering nature. Felling a living tree simply to satisfy an urge to chop
something down is no accomplishment, but rather a sign of lunacy or
inability to keep destructive urges under control.
ALWAYS A KNIFE:
If an axe or even a saw are not necessary on most camping trips, a knife
is almost ESSENTIAL even on a weekend stroll. Which really doesn't need
saying & certainly doesn't need explaining, as almost everyone instinctively
takes one with him. But, and here's the rub, a large number of the knives
taken to the woods should have been left behind. Malayan throwing knives,
Bowies big enough to kill an elephant in hand-to-hand combat, and commando
knives suitable for a submersible attack on Manhattan not only look absurd,
but they are impractical and in some cases useless. If you feel you need a
sheath knife, keep it small & simple. One of the best all-around models is a
skinning knife used by Canadian trappers known by the name of its designer,
Russell. You may not find it at a local store unless you're in trapping
country, but you can get an excellent Nova Scotia-made one with a smooth
rosewood handle and first-class Swedish steel blade by mail from the Ski Hut
or Eastern Mountain Sports. The Russell has a slightly offset 4 inch long
beaver tail blade with a curved handgrip. This means there's no hilt or
crossbar needed at the end of the blade, making it a lighter knife. The
hilt's sole purpose, in case you're interested, is to keep your fingers from
sliding forward and cutting themselves when you stab into something,
somebody or an animal. My only objection to the Russell knife is that the
point is not sharp (a sharp point is no good when you're scraping off fat
off a pelt, you might cut it). However, it's simple enough to sharpen it up.
ON THE SUBJECT OF MACHETES IN CONIFER
FORESTS:
Although Army & Navy surplus stores list a great variety of machetes in
their catalog, there's no possible use for machetes in temperate climates
except for trimming a lawn if you like to do things the hard way. A machete
is an excellent jungle knife, ESSENTIAL for hacking through dense but tender
underbrush. In lush tropical areas, where the water content of most plants
is considerably higher than it is up north, it's most effective. If that's
the direction in which you're heading, by all means take one. Otherwise
forget it Rambo! Also forget, if you do have to use a machete, about those
old Jungle Jim movies where they slash once to the right and once to the
left, then move forward three or four steps and slash again. Swinging a
machete through really dense undergrowth is good hard work! If you're
stubborn enough to want to get through, you may proceed at a rate of fifty
feet or so a day. That's why river travel is so popular in jungle regions.
THE SHOVEL:
A shovel presents more of a problem. Not in choice of models, but in
deciding whether to lug it along or not. It's useful for burying human waste
and garbage. But it's not ESSENTIAL. Our decision is usually based on
whether our shovel is required in the area to which we're heading. If the
fire rules demand it, we take a small folding entrenchment camp shovel; if
not, we leave it at home.
YOUR FATHER THE INSTRUMENT:
A feeling for the wilds is best communicated from father to son,
companion to companion. But how many of today's campers have an intrepid
Indian guide or trapper for a father? Yet technology can come to your rescue
here. For ex. How cold is it, is probably one of the most frequent asked
questions in the woods. A metal cased Taylor pocket thermometer measuring
from -30 to + 120 is only 5 1/2" long, weights an ounce and half and clips
onto your shirt pocket like a pencil. One can ALWAYS count cricket chirps
too, of course, if they are around. Take the number of chirps to one minute.
Subtract 40 from that number. Divide what is left by 4. Now add 50 and
that's the temperature almost to the degree.
(Next time check your thermometer or turn the
radio on?) You will also find that it's a full 10 degrees cooler down by
that tiny creek than up on the hillock only a 100 yards away.
ALTIMETERS:
If you go camping in mountain then it is a most useful pocket instrument
to bring along with a geodetic map, its couple of extra ounces might be
worthwhile. 2 expensive models to look for are the German Lufft and the
Swiss-made Thommens which are temperature compensated. You can use to
sharpen your sense of weather forecasting as well as determining altitude.
If your altimeter takes a nose dive, it's not the mountain collapsing but
merely the barometer rising, indicating a fine day ahead. Yet in the desert
it's useless instrument
EYE EXTENDERS or BINOCULARS:
Binoculars can be a real help in mapping out a route visually from high
vantage point to AVOID dead-end canyons and difficult fording and to
pinpoint helpful landmarks. For camping purposes, a lightweight is best. Not
opera glasses.
You need both fairly decent magnifications &
a respectable light-gathering lens. When you look for a pair of binocular,
you'll see numbers like 6X25, 7X35 etc. stamped on the casing. The first
number indicates the magnifying power, the second is the diameter in
millimeters of the larger or light gathering lens. Usually except for naval
night glasses, the ratio of the two figures is between 4 & 6. You can get
binoculars with a magnification considerably higher than the 6 or 7 commonly
seen but these require a bulky tripod, so AVOID them for camping purposes. A
diameter number exceeding 35 also can be found readily. But again you don't
need it unless you expect to use binoculars frequently under adverse light
conditions such as dawn, dusk or night. One good type is the Bushnell 6X25
selected by NASA for the Gemini missions, weighs only 11 oz. and is small
enough to fit into your jacket pocket.
ODDS AND ENDS:
Bring your toilet kit cut in 1/2 and don't forget the TOILET PAPER. Also
your suntan lotion and insect repellent and this book!
Back to Top
17. Miscellany
BASE CAMPING:
You wake up at sunrise and the campsite looks even better than it did
before. It is a beautiful day and with some regret you think about breaking
camp and moving on. Why? Why not linger awhile instead. The go-go-go of the
urban living is hard to leave behind. You are not in a race so relax. Keep
coool.
Conversions & Measures
METRIC CONVERSION DISTANCE
| IMPERIAL | METRIC | METRIC | IMPERIAL |
| 1 INCH | 2.540 CM | 1 CM | 0.3927 IN. |
| 1 FOOT | 0.3048 M. | I METRE | 3.281 FEET |
| 1 YARD | 0.9144 M. | 1 METRE | 1.094 YARD |
| 1 ROD | 5.029 M. | 1 METRE | 0.20 ROD |
| 1 MILE | 1.609 KM. | 1 KM. | 0.6214 MILE |
|
CAPACITY 1 FLUID OZ. = 28.41 ML. 1 CUP- (8FL.OZ) = 277 ML. 1 PINT = 0.568 LITRE 1 PINT (US) 0.473 LITRE 1 LITRE = 1.76 PINT 1 LITRE = .88 QUART 1 LITRE = 0.220 GAL. 1 GALLON = 4.546 LITRES 1 GALLON (US) 3.785 LITRES 1 QUART = 1.137 LITRE 1 QUART (US) 0.946 LITRE 1 BUSHEL = 6.369 LITRES 1 BARREL OIL 158.99 LITRES 1 TABLESPOON 14.21 ML. 1 TEASPOON 14.21 ML. |
WEIGHT 1 OZ. (TROY) = 31.103 GM. 1 GRAM 0.032 OZ. (TROY) 1 OZ.(AVIOR) = 28.350 GM. 1 GRAM 0.035 OZ. (AVIOR) 1 LB.(TROY) = 373.242GM. 1 KILOGRAM 2.679 LB. (TROY) 1 LB.(AVIOR) = 453.592GM. 1 KILOGRAM 2.205 LB.(AVIOR) 1 TON (SHORT) = 0.907 TONNE 1 TONNE = 1.102 TONNE (2000LB.) |
IMPERIAL AREA METRIC 1 SQ. IN. 6.452 SQ. CM. 1 SQ. Ft 0.093 SQ. METRE 1 SQ. YARD 0.836 SQ. METRE 1 ACRE 0.405 HECTARE 1 SQ. MILE 259.0 HECTARE 1 SQ. MILE 2.590 SQ. KM. 1 SQ. CM. 0.155 SQ. INCH 1 SQ. METRE 10.76 SQ. FEET 1 HECTARE 1.196 SQ. YARDS 1 SQ. KILOMETRE 0.386 SQ.MILE 1 HECTARE 1 SQ.HECTOMETRE (1HM.) |
VOLUME 1 CUBIC INCH 16.387 CUBIC CENTIMETRES 1 CUBIC FOOT 28.317 CUBIC DECIMETER (LITRES) 1 CUBIC YARD 0.765 CUBIC METRE 1 CUBIC CENTIMETRE 0.061 CUBIC INCH 1 CUBIC DECIMETER 0.035 CUBIC FOOT 1 CUBIC METRE 1.308 CUBIC YARD |
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE:
Conversion F to C= Subtract 32 Then Divide by 1.8 Ex: 80F. IS 80-32= 48
./. 1.8= 26.66
Conversion C to F= Multiply by 1.8 Then Add 32 but for daily use
just do this:
Convert F to C by Subtracting 32 and divide by
2. It is not as precise but it does the trick. Ex: 82F-32=50 Divided by 2 =
25C Ex; 10C+32=42 Multiply by 2 = 84F! It's hot! Boiling point 212F or 100C
Freezing point: 32F/ 0C
CABIN FEVER:
When it is storming out what do you do after you've slept yourself
silly? You talk for a while, a long time even, but then sooner or later,
cabin fever sets in. That strange psychological malady of confined quarters
that has turned genteel trappers into murderers, peaceful loving couples
into fighting minks. And solitary campers into strangers to themselves, who
convinced they're on a tropical island, shed their clothes in the snow and
decide to go for a stroll on the beach. So, for lengthy winter camping or if
there's any chance you'll be weathered in bring a chess or checker set, some
cards and a thick book or two like the bible and a book on plants etc.
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